The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the use and frequency of alcohol, psychostimulants, cannabinoids and sedatives among students from European countries. The results of the study indicate that, of the substances analyzed, students were most likely to consume alcohol both before and during the pandemic; however, they consumed alcohol much less frequently during the initial phase of the pandemic. This may have been caused by the lockdown, which restricted social meetings. The data in the literature seem to certify this: Steffen et al. indicated that 44% of young adults reported drinking less; at the same time, only 7% of adults reported the same. On the other hand, an increase in alcohol consumption was reported by 14% of young adults and 17% of mature adults [16]. Similar observations were noted by Mangot-Sala et al., that alcohol consumption was generally lower during the pandemic than in previous years [17]. The change in drinking habits when, for example, smaller amounts were consumed more frequently with the family is in line with the observation from this research, where many students drank less but more frequently [16,18,19]. Undoubtedly, the consumption pattern depends on the age group and many other predictors, as has already been summarized [20]. The above findings also certify the observation of our study that alcohol consumption increases among students in their final years of study—these people are gradually changing from young adults to mature adults. In contrast, a study by A. Zysset et al. found that in the early stages of the pandemic, one in four students surveyed developed riskier alcohol-related behaviors [21]. Similar observations were made among American students, where alcohol consumption increased significantly after the campus shutdown [22]. Thus, the data from the literature are not conclusive, and the differences are probably due to the different period of data collection. It could also have been related to varying degrees of government restrictions and increased stress. In earlier studies, increased alcohol consumption was shown to be a common way of coping with stress [23].

Although no significant differences were noted for frequency, a decrease in the use of cannabinoids and psychostimulants was visible during the pandemic. This may be related to alcohol consumption, which is known to be a predictor of other drugs usage (for example nicotine). A reduced number of occasions to drink alcohol (during lockdown) could entail a small decrease in psychostimulants or cannabinoids [24]. It can also be suggested that in the early days of the pandemic, the supply chains of psychoactive drugs may have been disrupted and their availability reduced. As investigated by Gunn et al., cannabis and alcohol are co-used [25]. However, the percentage of cannabinoids use decreased only moderately, and the differences are imperceptible when comparing the whole group (not only a group before COVID-19) to those from the pandemic period. Since the study limitation is definitely the lack of addiction level measurements, it cannot be precluded that a moderate to no decrease in cannabinoids use is due to addiction [26].

In contrast to the reduction in alcohol, cannabinoids and psychostimulants usage during the pandemic, the consumption of sedatives increased. There are studies confirming that since the beginning of the COVID-19 outbreak, mental distress/disorders have evidently increased, explaining the elevated intake that was observed in this study [27,28]. Another possible explanation could be a change in sleep patterns during the pandemic. Previous research has shown that during a lockdown, students went to bed late, stayed up late and had numerous naps during the day. All of this leads to changes in sleep architecture, worsens the quality of sleep and may contribute to a more frequent consumption of sedatives [29].

Gender differences revealed that, compared to men, women consume more sedatives but less alcohol, cannabinoids and psychostimulants. This suits the available data reporting that men are more likely than women to use almost all types of illicit drugs and that substance usage is significantly lower for females than for males [30,31]. On the other hand, when considering prescription drugs, women are more likely to seek treatment for a misuse of central nervous system depressants (which include sedatives); therefore, being at risk for greater anxiety could entail more antidepressants prescriptions, which increases the risk of misuse and overdose [32,33,34].

Finally, the results presented that, compared to Southern Europe, the students from Eastern Europe are more likely to consume alcohol and sedatives but use fewer psychostimulants and cannabinoids, the latter also being applicable for European students from the North. Regarding alcohol consumption, it has been confirmed that the highest lifetime prevalence rates (for beer, wine and breezers) were found among Eastern European countries such as Estonia, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Lithuania [35]. When it comes to sedative medication, the Statista report presenting data from 2020 indicated that, out of 19 countries in which the defined daily dosage (DDD) per 1000 inhabitants per day was evaluated, there were six countries from Central/Eastern Europe, five countries from Northern Europe and five from Western Europe, as well as four countries from Southern Europe [36]. Although the highest DDDs were observed for European countries of the North (Sweden, Iceland, Norway) and the lowest mainly in those of the West (Netherlands, Austria, Germany), the prevalence of Central/Eastern European countries was visible in those located halfway up the list (Estonia, Czechia, Slovakia), compared to only one country of the South, i.e., Spain. As for cannabinoids, a study by Gabri et al. efficiently summarizes cannabis use among adolescents and young adults [37]. The authors recapitulated the country-specific prevalence of self-reported cannabis use, within which three countries from Southern Europe (Spain, Italy, Portugal) and two from Central/Eastern Europe (Czechia, Slovakia) were included. When comparing the percentages of cannabis consumption that refer to the period when the current study also collected data (Gabri et al. provided results up to the year 2018), the mean percentage for Southern Europe is twice as large as in Central/Eastern Europe. Although this conforms to the observations presented herein, it should be certified in the future, taking into account more lenient and stringent legislations in specific countries.

The author is aware of the limitations of this work, which undoubtedly include the methodology of data collection. Since it was disseminated via the Internet, the author cannot verify the identity of the respondents. The number of people who received information about the study and the response rate is also unknown. On the other hand, this method of collecting data made it possible to reach respondents from many European countries. In addition, young respondents in particular are more willing to participate in this type of research and show greater truthfulness [38]. In a face-to-face questionnaire, more socially acceptable answers are often observed [39]. Another limitation is the vast majority of women and inhabitants of Central and Eastern Europe, which could have had an impact on the final results. The significant predominance of women may be due to the fact that women make up the majority of students from European countries [40]. In addition, past research shows that women are more likely to participate in online surveys [41]. In contrast, the preponderance of students from East-Central European countries may be because the author of the survey is a resident of that region. This may have affected the students’ level of confidence in participating in the survey. On the other hand, it could also be due to the lower visibility of the survey information in international student groups. However, it should be noted that this study covers the period before and during the pandemic and includes nearly 17,500 students, which undoubtedly proves its strength and innovation. It is also important to mention the lack of differentiation in the type of cannabinoid intake, which may show different efficacy.

Taken together, this study provides evidence that the COVID-19 pandemic significantly influenced the pattern of alcohol, cannabinoids, psychostimulants and sedatives used by students in European countries. The restriction of social interactions contributed to the decrease in the consumption of alcohol and psychostimulants. On the other hand, the COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to a significant increase in the use of sedatives and the frequency of their use. The logistic regression analysis showed that women use sedatives more often, while men prefer to drink alcohol and use cannabinoids or psychostimulants. It has also been shown that students of Central and Eastern Europe use alcohol and sedatives more often, while in Southern European countries psychostimulants and cannabinoids are preferred.

Undoubtedly, the results of this study show that the use of psychoactive substances is a serious problem among students. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has affected their use in different ways. It is necessary to continue monitoring the phenomenon and take appropriate steps to reduce the use of stimulants, the excessive use of which can lead to addiction and serious health consequences.