Willingness, Motivators and Barriers to Time Bank Participation: A Scoping Review
1Department of Nursing Science, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia
2Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia
3Centre of Study for Psychology & Human Well-Being, National University of Malaysia
*Correspondence author: Che Chong Chin Email: chechongchin@um.edu.my (CCC)Abstract
Objective
This scoping review systematically identifies the extent and nature of evidence regarding willingness, motivators, and barriers influencing community participation in time bank systems, with a focus on older adults.
Introduction
Time bank is recognized as an effective tool for enhancing social cohesion and reducing isolation, particularly among older adults. However, specific factors such as barriers and motivators driving participation remain underexplored.
Design
Scoping review.
Methods
This review adhered to Arksey and O’Malley’s framework and PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A systematic search of PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and Science Direct (January 2010–December 2024) identified studies on willingness, motivators, and barriers to time bank participation. Two reviewers independently screened titles, abstracts, and full texts, extracting data using a predefined tool.
Results
Thirty studies (quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods) were included. Findings revealed high willingness among younger populations, particularly university students, driven by intrinsic motivations like altruism and meaningful engagement. Healthcare professionals and older adults showed moderate willingness, influenced by health needs and caregiving roles. Key motivators included robust willingess to participate across different population, social and community influences, demographic and structural determinants, institutional and organizational support. Barriers included psychological and perceptual barriers, structural and systemic barriers, technological and usability, social and community, economic and policy-related barriers.
Conclusions
Time bank holds significant potential for fostering community engagement, but challenges such as usability and trust must be addressed. Tailored strategies, improved platform design, and supportive policies are essential to maximize participation. Future research should address identified gaps to develop inclusive, scalable, and sustainable time bank systems that meet diverse community needs.
Article notes
Competing Interest Statement
The authors have declared no competing interest.
Clinical Protocols
Funding Statement
Yes
2Introduction
The concept of time bank, a system of reciprocal exchange where services are traded using units of time rather than monetary currency, has gained global attention as a sustainable and community-driven approach to address various social and economic challenges. Time banks foster community cohesion, promote interdependence, and encourage active participation among members, making them particularly relevant in aging societies. Older adults, a demographic often facing social isolation, financial constraints, and health-related challenges, stand to benefit significantly from time bank initiatives (1).
Existing literature has highlighted the potential of time banks to improve social cohesion and address isolation among older adults; however, the specific barriers and motivators influencing their participation have not been systematically reviewed. While some older adults may find time bank appealing due to its focus on mutual support and non-monetary exchanges, others may face barriers such as lack of awareness, limited digital literacy, or concerns about safety and trust. Additionally, certain motivators, such as opportunities for social interaction, skill-sharing, and community engagement, might drive their participation. Understanding these elements is crucial to designing inclusive and effective time bank systems that cater to the needs and preferences of older adults.
The aging population represents a growing segment of society, with unique social, economic, and health-related needs that demand innovative solutions. Time bank presents an opportunity to meet these needs by fostering a sense of community and facilitating access to essential services. While time bank has been implemented in various contexts worldwide, there is limited understanding of how older adults perceive and engage with these systems. To design effective interventions, it is essential to explore the willingness of older adults to participate, the barriers they face, and the factors that motivate their involvement.
Existing research provides fragmented insights into these issues. Studies have identified social isolation and lack of meaningful engagement as critical issues for older adults, which time bank can potentially address. However, there is a lack of comprehensive reviews that synthesize evidence on the factors influencing older adults’ participation in time banks. Preliminary evidence suggests that older adults may be willing to participate if barriers such as limited awareness, lack of trust, or accessibility challenges are addressed.
Furthermore, motivators such as opportunities for social interaction, skill-sharing, and a sense of purpose have been mentioned in isolated studies but not systematically explored. Key terms such as "willingness," "barriers," and "motivators" are operationally defined for the purposes of this review. "Willingness" refers to the readiness or inclination of older adults to engage in time bank activities. "Barriers" encompass any challenges or obstacles, including physical, psychological, social, or systemic factors, that hinder participation. "Motivators" are defined as factors that encourage or incentivize older adults to engage with time bank, such as opportunities for socialization, skill-sharing, or financial benefits.
A preliminary search of the literature indicates that evidence exists on various aspects of time bank and older adults, albeit scattered across disciplines such as social work, public health, and gerontology. Studies range from small-scale qualitative explorations to broader quantitative surveys, highlighting diverse perspectives on the topic. However, no existing review has systematically mapped this evidence to provide a comprehensive understanding of the willingness, barriers, and motivators related to time bank participation among older adults.
This scoping review has the potential to inform policymakers, community organizers, and researchers about strategies to enhance time bank participation among older adults by synthesizing the existing evidence, it aims to contribute to the development of tailored interventions that address barriers, leverage motivators, and ultimately improve the well-being and social integration of older adults. Furthermore, the findings can serve as a basis for future studies, including empirical investigations and intervention trials, to evaluate the effectiveness of time bank initiatives in addressing the needs of ageing populations.
3Methods
3.1Protocol and registration
Arksey and O’Malley’s framework (2) for scoping reviews was adopted as the foundation as well as an updated framework by the Joanna Briggs Institute. According to this framework, there are five different stages which include; identifying the research question, identifying relevant studies, selecting studies, charting the data, collating, summarising and reporting results. The scoping review also adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) (3).
The protocol have been registered in the Open Science Framework (Registration DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/X9KA4) in March 2025. All extracted data were checked for accuracy by one author (CCC) who did not partake in the data extraction. As per JBI Scoping Review guidance, we did not conduct a quality assessment.
3.1.1Ethics Approval
This scoping review of the literature did not involve human participants or the use of data that was not already publicly available; consequently, ethical approval was not required.
3.4Study selection
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) (3) was used in the selection process of the study. At first, two reviewers (NSA and CCC) screened the titles and abstracts of the articles. During this process, the following steps were implemented: (1) if both reviewers concurred on the inclusion of an article, it was subsequently subjected to a full-text review by each reviewer; (2) if both reviewers agreed on the exclusion of an article, it was removed from the study; (3) if there was a lack of consensus between the reviewers regarding an article’s inclusion or exclusion, it advanced to the next phase of the screening process, where each reviewer conducted a full-text assessment before reaching a final decision. In this phase, both reviewers independently performed a comprehensive review of the selected articles. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were established in alignment with the research objectives.
Inclusion criteria
Data from the articles are from qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods forms of the original studies. The studies eligible for inclusion in the review had to focus on the participants willingness, motivators and barriers towards time bank participation. The research involved all layers of the population, the time bank system, and associated data. The articles were published in the English language. Exclusion criteria: Studies focusing on populations not relevant to time bank system (e.g., corporate barter systems, traditional volunteering unrelated to time bank); studies involving individuals or communities where time bank is not applicable or feasible (e.g., isolated populations without access to a time bank system); studies addressing economic systems or currency models that are unrelated to time bank (e.g., blockchain or cryptocurrency); theoretical papers without empirical data or practical insights into participation in time bank; reviews or meta-analyses that do not provide original data and studies using methods that are unsuitable for addressing willingness, barriers, or motivators (e.g., engineering-focused system design studies). Such studies would not contribute to answering the research questions.
3.5Charting the data
The research team collaboratively develops a data-charting form using Microsoft Excel version 16.16.27 to gather and tabulate all relevant data from the studies that have been selected to identify key variables for extraction that will contribute to addressing the research question. Any initial uncertainty regarding the scope and nature of data to be extracted was mitigated by commencing the charting process, familiarizing researchers with the study data, and subsequently revisiting and refining the form. NSA and CCC independently extract data from an initial subset of five to ten studies using the data-charting form, after which they convene to assess the consistency of their data extraction approach with the research objectives. During this stage, studies were reviewed multiple times to ensure accuracy. Data regarding willingness, barriers and motivators were extracted from the selected studies if they were mentioned by the authors in the results or discussion as being relevant to the community’s willingness towards participation in time bank.
3.6Collating, summarising and reporting the results
The fundamental characteristics of the included studies were systematically analyzed using qualitative thematic analysis and organized in a tabular format. The main characteristic of the study such as author’s name, publication year, country of the study conducted, study design, study aims, sample size, and key findings were summarized. Table 1 summarizes the outcomes of this synthesis. Following the collating of article details and content, the researchers (NSA & CCC) developed the themes and domains, subsequently reviewed by the research team. Based on this classification, key domains were established to encapsulate essential aspects of the published research on willingness to participate in time bank system, as well as the motivators and barriers influencing their participation. The team identified gaps in our understanding of the current state of research. The discussion is structured based on the themes that emerge.
4Results
4.1Search Outcomes
The searches for primary studies and grey literature located 1120 items were relevant hits to from these databases using the keywords/phrase time bank, time bank, time bank, time-bank and time-bank. As this topic has long been discussed by many researchers, only articles that most pertained to research questions have been selected by inserting keywords such as “motivation”, “barriers” and “willingness”. Limiting the literature yield to those which were from peer-reviewed journals, those which are relevant to community, caring and healthcare, those were in the English Language, and those which have full-text availability online, the yield was lowered to 233. The next screening was sifting the abstract of the articles, which was decided by reviewing the relevance of the article with the topic. The abstract sifting produced 42 findings. The remaining articles were then examined using full text filtering, and their relevance to and interest in the study’s subject matter were evaluated. After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, the search’s final output was reduced to 30 articles. These 30 articles are relevant for the factors influencing, motivation, barriers and willingness of participation time bank. The PRISMA flowchart of the study selection process was generated using PRISMA Flow Diagram tool by Haddaway, Page (4) (see Figure).
4.2Characteristics of included studies
The included studies comprised: 24 articles peer-reviewed publications; six grey literatures. Ten quantitative studies, 15 qualitative studies and five mixed-method studies are relevant to the willingness, motivator and barriers of participation in time bank system. Although the populations and the objectives of the included studies were different, it was possible to categorize the results in (1) willingness to participate in time bank system, (2) motivators to participate and (3) barriers to participate. Among 30 studies, eight were in China, five in the United States, two were in the United Kingdom, two in Spain and one study from Thailand, Nigeria, Sweden, India, New Zealand, Russia, Turkey, Hong Kong, England and Belgium, one study combined population from Bulgaria, Denmark, England, France, Spain, one study combined population from United States, New Zealand and India, and one study combined population from Finland and United Kingdom (see Table 1 and Figure 2).
4.3Synthesis of result
4.3.1Willingness to participate in time bank system
Robust willingess to participate across different population
Across studies, a majority of participants express interest in time bank system, with variations by age, gender, and socioeconomic factors. University students and younger generations demonstrate the highest levels of willingness, with 82.67% of Chinese university students (5) and 71% of Thailand youth aged 18–23 (6) expressing interest in participating. Similarly, 62.7% of respondents from the general community in Hangzhou reported being “very willing” or “willing” to engage in time bank services, with gender, age, and education level playing significant roles (7).
Healthcare professionals, such as nurses, also show a moderate willingness, with 59.6% expressing interest in volunteering for older adults with disabilities, influenced by positive attitudes and reduced barriers (8). Among older adults, willingness varies. 58% of Chinese older adults expressed readiness to engage in healthcare-related time bank, driven by physical quality of life and demographic factors like gender and residence (9). Meanwhile, rural elderly populations demonstrate a relatively higher demand for mutual support services (10).
Caregivers of dementia patients exhibited higher willingness when factors like caregiver burden, technology affinity, and openness to professional support were present (11). These findings underscore that willingness is often shaped by specific enablers such as personal attitudes, social environments, perceived value, and ease of participation.
Factors influence the willingness to participate in time bank system
Physical quality of life plays a significant role, with older adults who have better physical well-being showing greater enthusiasm for participation Hao, Zhang (9). In contrast, individuals experiencing lower mental well-being tend to be less willing to engage in time bank, suggesting that mental health challenges may serve as a barrier (Hao et al., 2024). Social and economic factors also shape attitudes toward time bank, as value judgment, social support, and overall socioeconomic conditions determine the level of engagement (5). Additionally, caregiver burden has been identified as a driving factor, with those experiencing higher caregiving responsibilities showing a stronger inclination to participate in time bank (11).
Age and regional differences further influence participation willingness
Studies indicate that younger individuals, particularly those between the ages of 18 and 23, demonstrate the highest willingness to engage in time bank, with 71% expressing interest (6). In contrast, for elderly individuals living in rural areas, participation is largely determined by perceived usefulness, behavioral attitudes, and subjective norms (12). These findings suggest that while time bank holds broad appeal, the specific motivations and barriers vary across age groups and geographic locations. For example, for the older people group, the free time every day has different effects on the willingness to participate in online timebank. Three to five hours of free time has a significantly positive effect on the willingness to participate in online timebank in the older people group. However, free time of six hours or more has a significantly negative effect on the willingness to participate in online timebank in the older people group. As a result, older individuals are less likely to join in online timebanks because they are too busy caring for their grandkids or pursuing their own interests (13).
4.3.2Motivators to participate in time bank system
Personal and psychological motivations
The motivations behind participation in time bank systems can be examined through several interrelated themes, drawing from established theoretical frameworks and empirical studies. Personal and psychological motivations play a significant role in influencing engagement. In this review, studies have shown that participants in time banks often seek personal growth, self-promotion, and the opportunity to contribute meaningfully to society (14, 15). This is aligned with Self-Determination Theory (16), individuals are intrinsically motivated to participate in activities that enhance their sense of self-fulfillment and meaningful engagement. Additionally, the concept of altruism and social contribution that rooted in the theory of reciprocal altruism (17), explains why many individuals participate in time bank with the belief that fairness and reciprocity underpin social exchanges as reported by Shih, Bellotti (18) and Valor, Papaoikonomou (19). These motivations align with the idea that individuals engage in prosocial behaviors when they perceive mutual benefits, reinforcing trust within the community. Moreover, it was also reported that perceived value and rewards, influence participation through factors such as ease of use, perceived usefulness, and tangible benefits like time credits (20–22). This suggests that when participants find the system user-friendly and beneficial, they are more likely to engage in sustained participation.
Demographic and structural determinants
Demographic and structural determinants further influence engagement, demonstrating the role of age, education, health, and economic conditions. Studies have shown that younger individuals, particularly urban dwellers, exhibit higher engagement due to their greater digital literacy and social capital, while older adults tend to participate when specific conditions, such as health benefits or caregiving responsibilities, make time bank more relevant to their needs (9, 13). What’s more, education and experience also shape participation, as higher levels of education and prior volunteer experience are positively correlated with increased involvement in time banks, which posits that investment in education enhances social and economic engagement (12, 13). Studies also reported that health and economic status influence participation patterns, with elderly individuals in good health being more actively engaged, while socioeconomic conditions determine the extent to which individuals rely on time banks as a support mechanism (12, 13)
Institutional and organizational support
Institutional and organizational support is crucial in sustaining participation in time bank systems. Studies reported that well-defined program structures, strong management, and clear guidelines enhance participation by providing reliability and consistency in exchanges (14, 25). Moreover, engagement strategies rooted in motivation theories, such as Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (26) suggest that both intrinsic motivators (recognition and meaningful work) and extrinsic incentives (rewards and structured meetings) improve retention. This review found that regular meetings and well-planned incentive structures foster sustained participation by reinforcing a sense of accountability and community (14, 25). These factors collectively highlight the need for comprehensive structural support to maintain the long-term viability of time bank initiatives.
5Discussion
Time bank, a system of reciprocal service exchange based on the principle of "equal time, equal value," has gained attention as a community-oriented model fostering social support and engagement. However, participation in time bank system is influenced by a complex interplay of willingness, motivation, and barriers. This discussion critically examines these aspects while identifying research gaps that require further exploration.
Willingness to Participate
The willingness to participate in time bank is undeniably high across diverse populations, but this enthusiasm is not uniformly distributed and is heavily influenced by demographic and contextual factors. While younger generations show the highest levels of willingness, this trend raises questions about the inclusivity and accessibility of time bank systems for other demographic groups. For instance, Wu et al. (2023) found that 82.67% of Chinese university students expressed interest in time bank, and Sasananan et al. (2019) reported that 71% of Thai youth aged 18–23 were willing to participate. While these figures highlight the appeal of time bank among tech-savvy younger populations, they also underscore a potential bias in the design and promotion of these systems, which may inadvertently exclude older adults or those less comfortable with digital platforms. This raises a critical question: Are time banksystems truly inclusive, or do they primarily cater to younger, more technologically adept individuals?
Healthcare professionals, on the other hand, demonstrate moderate willingness, with 59.6% expressing interest in caregiving roles for older adults with disabilities (Cui et al., 2023). While their altruistic motivations and professional alignment with caregiving are commendable, their participation is often constrained by professional obligations and a lack of supportive infrastructures. This suggests that time bank initiatives must address systemic barriers, such as time constraints and inadequate support systems, to fully harness the potential of healthcare professionals. Without addressing these challenges, time bank risks becoming a supplementary rather than a transformative tool in community care.
Among older adults, willingness is shaped by factors such as physical quality of life, gender, and residence. Hao et al. (2024) found that 58% of older Chinese adults were ready to engage in healthcare-related time bank, driven by their healthcare needs and demographic factors. However, this figure also implies that a significant portion of older adults remain hesitant, possibly due to mistrust, lack of awareness, or perceived complexity of the system. Interestingly, rural elderly populations show higher demand for mutual-support services (Yao et al., 2022), suggesting that time bank could play a pivotal role in addressing the unique needs of underserved communities. Yet, this potential remains largely untapped due to structural inefficiencies and limited outreach efforts.
Caregivers of dementia patients exhibit high willingness when enablers such as reduced caregiver burden, technological affinity, and professional support are present (Aksin et al., 2023). While this highlights the importance of situational and psychological factors in shaping participation, it also raises concerns about the sustainability of such engagement. Without ongoing support and tailored interventions, the initial enthusiasm of caregivers may wane, leading to disengagement and reduced effectiveness of time bank systems.
In conclusion, while willingness to participate in time bank is generally high, it is unevenly distributed and influenced by a complex interplay of demographic, contextual, and systemic factors. To realize the full potential of time bank, initiatives must move beyond one-size-fits-all approaches and adopt targeted strategies that address the unique barriers and motivators of different population groups. Only then can time bank become a truly inclusive and transformative tool for community engagement.
Motivation Factors
Motivational factors are undeniably central to driving participation in time bank, but their impact is not uniform and is often mediated by systemic and contextual challenges. These factors can be broadly categorized as intrinsic, extrinsic, and structural, each playing a distinct yet interconnected role in shaping engagement. Intrinsic motivations, such as altruism, self-promotion, and the desire to contribute to society, are frequently cited as significant drivers. For instance, Lu et al. (2024) and Shmidt (2021) emphasize that engaging in meaningful work and experiencing unique social contributions are key motivators. Similarly, Shih et al. (2015) and Valor et al. (2017) highlight how the ideological principle of "equal time, equal value" fosters a sense of shared purpose among participants. However, while these intrinsic motivations are powerful, they are not sufficient on their own. Without addressing extrinsic and structural barriers, even the most altruistic individuals may find their enthusiasm waning over time.
Extrinsic motivators, such as tangible rewards like time coins and service hours, also play a critical role in influencing participation. Jiao et al. (2024) found that such rewards enhance engagement but cautioned that excessive demands could deter participants. This raises an important question: Are extrinsic rewards sustainable in the long term, or do they risk commodifying participation and undermining the intrinsic values that underpin time bank? Furthermore, the usability of time bank platforms is a pivotal extrinsic factor. Yuan et al. (2019) demonstrated that simplified, user-friendly systems significantly enhance participation, particularly among younger demographics. However, this also highlights a potential bias in design, as older adults or those with limited digital literacy may find such platforms inaccessible. If time bank systems are not designed with inclusivity in mind, they risk perpetuating existing inequalities rather than fostering community cohesion.
Social and organizational factors further complicate the motivational landscape. Strong social support networks, cross-sector collaboration, and co-production environments create enabling conditions for participation. Dury (2018) underscored the importance of organizational support mechanisms, such as regular meetings, incentives, and attentive coordination, in retaining participants. Reciprocity and trust in peer-to-peer exchanges also enhance commitment, as noted by Papaoikonomou and Valor (2016). Yet, these factors are not guaranteed and often depend on the availability of resources and institutional support. In resource-constrained settings, the absence of such structures can severely limit participation, particularly among marginalized groups.
Despite these motivational drivers, significant barriers persist. Usability challenges and a lack of awareness about time bank systems continue to hinder participation, as highlighted by Akter and Abonty (2019). These barriers are not merely technical but reflect deeper systemic issues, such as unequal access to resources and information. To truly enhance engagement, time bank initiatives must go beyond superficial fixes and address these structural inequities. Fostering value judgment, improving platform usability, and providing targeted support are essential steps, but they must be part of a broader strategy that prioritizes inclusivity and sustainability.
In conclusion, while motivational factors are crucial in driving participation in time bank, their effectiveness is contingent on addressing extrinsic and structural barriers. Without a holistic approach that balances intrinsic values with practical support, time bank risks becoming an exclusive rather than inclusive tool for community engagement. Future initiatives must critically evaluate these dynamics to ensure that time bank systems are accessible, equitable, and sustainable for all.
6Conclusion
Time bank extends beyond a simple system of service exchange; it represents a transformative approach to fostering social cohesion, reducing isolation, and promoting mutual aid. As a mechanism for strengthening communities, time bank offers significant potential; however, realizing its full benefits requires addressing key challenges and opportunities.
Existing research underscores the necessity of tailoring time bank initiatives to diverse demographic groups, each with distinct needs and motivations. Younger individuals may engage more effectively through gamified, technology-driven platforms, whereas older adults may benefit from simplified systems and health-related incentives. Additionally, caregivers require flexible participation options that accommodate their demanding schedules. Without targeted approaches, certain groups may remain underrepresented or excluded from time bank initiatives.
Sustained engagement in time bank is critical to its long-term viability. The factors influencing continued participation must be examined, including the role of social connections, tangible benefits, and a sense of purpose. A deeper understanding of these motivations is essential for developing strategies that ensure lasting involvement and commitment among participants.
Technological advancements present both opportunities and challenges for time bank implementation. While usability concerns remain a common barrier, emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain offer potential solutions. AI-driven systems could optimize service matching, while blockchain technology may enhance the security and transparency of time credit transactions. Further research is required to assess the feasibility and impact of these innovations on time bank systems.
Cultural and contextual variations significantly influence the effectiveness of time bank initiatives. While certain communities may successfully integrate time bank into their social fabric, others may encounter obstacles due to cultural norms, economic conditions, or societal values. A comprehensive understanding of these contextual factors is necessary to develop inclusive and adaptable models that cater to diverse populations.
Institutional and policy support play a crucial role in the scalability and sustainability of time bank. Without backing from governmental entities, nonprofit organizations, or cross-sector partnerships, time bank may struggle to overcome structural barriers. Supportive policies, public funding, and collaborative efforts across various sectors could enhance the credibility and reach of time bank systems.
Accurately measuring the impact of time bank remains a pressing challenge. Evaluating its effectiveness requires more than participant counts; it necessitates an analysis of broader social, economic, and psychological benefits. Key areas of assessment include improvements in mental health, community cohesion, and economic resilience. Establishing robust evaluation metrics will provide empirical evidence to support the expansion and adoption of time bank initiatives.
Ultimately, time bank serves as a powerful tool with the capacity to drive meaningful social change. However, its success depends on the effectiveness of its design, implementation, and ongoing support. Addressing existing research gaps and practical limitations will contribute to the development of inclusive, sustainable, and impactful time bank systems. The potential for transformative change exists, contingent upon continued efforts to refine and enhance this innovative approach.
7Strengths and Limitations
This scoping review offers a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on time bank, highlighting key factors such as willingness, motivators, and barriers to participation. One of its strengths lies in its broad scope, encompassing diverse populations, including younger individuals, older adults, healthcare professionals, and caregivers. By synthesizing findings from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods studies, the review provides a nuanced understanding of the complexities surrounding time bank participation. Additionally, the identification of research gaps, such as the need for demographic-specific strategies, technological integration, and policy support, offers a clear roadmap for future research and practice.
However, the review is not without limitations. First, the focus on English-language studies may exclude valuable insights from non-English-speaking regions, limiting the generalizability of the findings. Second, the reliance on self-reported data in many studies may introduce biases, as participants’ willingness and motivations could be influenced by social desirability or recall bias. Third, the review primarily highlights gaps in the literature but does not provide empirical solutions to these challenges. Future research should address these limitations by including diverse linguistic and cultural contexts, employing mixed-methods approaches to reduce bias, and testing practical interventions to overcome identified barriers.
Data Availability
All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.
8Data availability
Search results and screening information can be obtained from the corresponding author.
9Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
11 Acknowledgement
We want to thank the Ministry of Higher Education for the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2023/SS10/UM/02/5) awarded to Dr Che Chong Chin.
11 Acknowledgement
We want to thank the Ministry of Higher Education for the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2023/SS10/UM/02/5) awarded to CCC.