Canada legalized non-medical (‘recreational’) cannabis in October 2018 at the federal level. While the number of brick and mortar stores was initially limited, there has been substantial growth to more than 2400 stores by September 2021 (Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction 2022). Prior to the legalization of non-medical cannabis, medical cannabis was available to authorized users through home grow or mail order from a licensed producer who was regulated by Health Canada (Shim et al. 2023). No ‘brick-and-mortar’ stores were permitted although some Canadian cities had unauthorized stores self-identifying as ‘medical dispensaries’ (Mahamad and Hammond 2018). Although legalization occurred at the federal level, provinces and territories are responsible for retail distribution of cannabis, including licensing cannabis retailers and establishing guidelines. Six provinces and all three territories have opted for privately run brick-and-mortar stores (Newfoundland and Labrador, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Nunavut, Yukon, and Northwest territories), four provinces have opted for government-run stores (Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec), while British Columbia has a hybrid model. Although retail sales were permitted on the same date as legalization, the opening legal retail stores varied considerably between provinces following legalization. In some provinces such as Alberta and Manitoba, some legal ‘brick and mortar’ stores opened on the first day of legalization, while in other provinces, such as Ontario, the first stores opened months later (Wadsworth et al. 2023). Online sales of cannabis are legal in all jurisdictions in Canada and were available from the date of legalization Regulations surrounding the location of stores, such as distance from schools and distance from other cannabis stores, vary widely across provinces. In some jurisdictions, such as Ontario, a provincial regulation of 150 m distance from a school boundary line is required for all stores, with no requirements for distances between stores (Gagnon et al. 2022). In other cases, municipalities are allowed to set their own regulations on these matters (Gagnon et al. 2022).

The number and location of retail cannabis stores has the potential to influence patterns of use and purchasing behavior. This has been demonstrated for alcohol (Gmel et al. 2016) and tobacco (Cantrell et al. 2016; Reitzel et al. 2011) and more recently for cannabis (Wadsworth et al. 2021; Pedersen et al. 2021; Everson et al. 2019). With the changing landscape of legal cannabis retail stores, there is interest in understanding the distribution of stores based on neighbourhood deprivation. If stores are disproportionality located in deprived neighbourhoods, marginalized communities may be exposed to greater promotion of and access to cannabis, leading to greater use (Mair et al. 2015; Rhew et al. 2022). A recent study found that in Washington state, where non-medical cannabis is legally available, there was not only greater cannabis retail availability in disadvantaged neighbourhoods, but cannabis use and perceived acceptability of use were also higher (Rhew et al. 2022). Greater retail access to legal cannabis has been associated with current and frequent cannabis use (Everson et al. 2019; Shih et al. 2019; Ambrose et al. 2021). In addition, the availability of retail stores also has the potential to shape social norms within communities, which may impact subsequent use (Rhew et al. 2022). Conversely, a lack of legal stores in more deprived neighbourhoods could suppress transitions to the legal market and increase the risk of criminal sanctions from illicit cannabis. This is a particular concern given that individuals living in marginalized communities and racial minorities have been disproportionately targeted by criminal sanctions for cannabis possession (Wortley and Jung 2020; Owusu-Bempah and Luscombe 2020).

Research has examined the distribution of both medical dispensaries and retail stores in some US states by neighbourhood deprivation. For example, a 2009 study in California found that dispensaries were more likely to be found in areas with high cannabis demand, higher rates of poverty, and more alcohol outlets (Morrison et al. 2014), while a 2020 study found that there were more unlicensed outlets in low-income areas and more licensed outlets in areas where the majority of residents were white and had higher levels of education (Firth et al. 2022). In Colorado, more licensed retail outlets for medical and recreational cannabis were found in low income areas with a higher proportion of ethnic and racial minority groups (Shi et al. 2016). Similarly, a study in Washington State found that between 2014 and 2017, the density of recreational retail cannabis outlets was greatest in the most deprived neighbourhoods at all time points, with significantly more outlets in the most deprived neighbourhoods compared to the least deprived neighbourhoods (Amiri et al. 2019). Some have suggested that these communities lack social and economic resources to resist establishment of outlets in their neighbourhoods (Shi et al. 2016; Morrison et al. 2014). While there is little research on the distribution of retail stores in Canada since legalization in October 2018, one study found that, as of October 2020, there were almost 1.9 times the number of legal retail cannabis stores within 1000 m of the lowest income neighbourhoods compared to the highest income neighbourhoods, which was down from 2.4 times in October 2019 (Myran et al. 2019). However, the retail market has more than doubled since this period, and it is unclear if this trend will continue.

The current study sought to examine the distribution of physical legal retail cannabis stores in Canada overall and within each province/territory by neighbourhood deprivation using a comprehensive measure which considers not only income, but also other aspects of material and social deprivation.