Immune and Redox Responses of Galleria mellonella to Caffeic Acid: Concentration- and Time-Dependent Patterns

Fatih Battal, Serhat Kaya

Background/Objectives: Caffeic acid is a naturally occurring phenolic compound with antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties, but its integrated effects on innate immune and redox-related physiology in Galleria mellonella remain unclear. This study evaluated concentration- and time-related effects of caffeic acid on immune and biochemical endpoints. Methods: Last-instar larvae were exposed to 0.1–5 mg/mL caffei…