This study aimed to examine the prevalence and characteristics of Indigenous adults, ages 65 and above, who reported never using the Internet in a typical month. Overall, 33.6% of Indigenous older adults living off-reserves in Canada did not use the Internet. After adjustment, results indicated those who were older, First Nations individuals, male, lived in Quebec and in rural areas, were married, and had an Indigenous language mother tongue and a strong sense of belonging to their Indigenous identity were more likely to not use the Internet compared to their counterparts. In addition, Indigenous older individuals who were less educated, unemployed, non-drinkers, smokers, had lower personal income, smoked cigarettes, used marijuana and had lower self-perceived mental health and unmet health needs were at increased odds of Internet non-use compared to their counterparts. These findings are significant as Indigenous older adults are clearly not a homogenous group. Those possessing these traits are at a disadvantage because they cannot benefit from the social, educational, and health-related resources available online.

Our analyses suggest that as Indigenous older adults aged, they were more likely to not use the Internet. Around 65% of Indigenous older adults aged 80 years or older reported not using the Internet in the past month, whereas almost 44% of those aged 75–79, almost 33% of those aged 70–74, and only around 23% of those aged 65–69 reported non-use. This finding maybe explained by lack of access to technology and increased medical conditions and age-related functional restrictions which may decrease the likelihood of being online [2, 9, 11, 12]. Such results align with Ali-Hassan et al.’s (2019) [13] findings that Canadian adults aged 70 or older were at increased odds of Internet non-use compared to those ages 65–69. Similar trends were found in studies from the Netherlands [12] and the United States [1, 21]. Moreover, First Nations older adults living off-reserves were at increased odds of not using the Internet compared to Métis older adults. Indigenous communities are not a homogenous population and future research must focus on their distinct needs, to allow tailored intervention. Results indicated that sex was significantly associated with Internet non-use, as older Indigenous males were almost 1.5 times as likely as females to not have used the Internet. On the other hand, Ali-Hassan et al. (2019) [13] found no significant sex differences, and other relevant literature was inconsistent [1, 9, 12, 22].

Geography plays a role in Indigenous populations’ access to the Internet. Before adjustment, Indigenous older adults residing in the Territories, defined as Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut, had the highest odds of not having used the Internet in the past month. However, after adjusting for other variables, those in Quebec, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Alberta were at increased odds of Internet non-use compared to their counterparts in British Columbia. Additionally, Indigenous older adults living in rural areas were significantly more likely to have not used the Internet compared to their urban counterparts. Haight, Quan-Haase, and Corbett (2014) [22] reported that Canadians living in urban areas were 51% more likely to access the Internet compared to those in rural areas. Off-reserve Indigenous populations are more likely to live in rural areas than their non-Indigenous counterparts [23]. A strong digital divide exists for Northern and remote communities versus other Canadian communities [4]. Internet connection in remote rural areas is slow, unreliable, and expensive [23]. In Quebec for example, most remote Indigenous communities access the Internet by satellite and have a maximum speed of less than 1.5 megabits per second, compared to a basic speed of 30 megabits per second in Montreal [24]. This form of Internet frequently disconnects, making video-conferencing and downloading files almost impossible [24].

Our analyses indicated that married or common law Indigenous older adults were at increased odds of not having used the Internet compared to their single counterparts. Previous literature showed similar associations between marital status and Internet use [25]. Ali-Hassan et al. (2019) [13] further reported that those who had partners or significant others and those who were satisfied with their personally relationships were more likely to not have used the Internet. Therefore, it is probable that married or common-law Indigenous older adults are not motivated to use the Internet as they do not feel the need to connect with others or socialize online. Moreover, Indigenous older individuals whose mother tongue was an Indigenous language were more likely to not have used the Internet than those whose mother tongue was French. Individuals who reported having a deep sense of belonging to their Indigenous identity were also at increased odds of Internet non-use compared to those who did not. These results suggest a digital exclusion, potentially tied to the limited online resources available in Indigenous languages, lack of culturally appropriate content online and potential exposure to racism, made bolder by the protection of anonymity [4]. During their interviews with Smillie-Adjarkwa (2005) [4], Indigenous women in Canada mentioned that some sites online do promote cultural, religious, and language racism, despite claims that they did not face racism online. There is no previous literature that investigates the potential relationships that may exist between these variables, but further research is warranted.

In terms of socioeconomic factors, education, income, and employment were associated with Internet non-use. Results demonstrated that the lower the formal education an Indigenous older adult had received, the more likely they were to not use the Internet; those who had not obtained a secondary education were more than 8 times more likely to not use the Internet compared to those who received a Bachelor’s degree or higher. Moreover, Indigenous older adults with lower personal incomes were at increased odds of Internet non-use compared to those with higher personal incomes. Our findings are in line with Ali-Hassan et al. ‘s (2019) [13] results on Canadian older adults and with other studies’ results on older adults in the United States and the United Kingdom [25–27]. Our analysis found that unemployed Indigenous older individuals were at increased odds of Internet non-used compared to employed individuals. Previous literature indicates similar trends between socioeconomic factors and Internet use, identifying cost as a significant barrier to Internet access [13, 25, 26]. These differences in socioeconomic status between users and non-users highlight and often exacerbate the existing social inequalities that further marginalize Indigenous individuals.

Interestingly, results indicated that non-drinkers were at increased odds of Internet non-use compared to alcohol drinkers. Similarly, Canadian older adults who had not consumed alcohol in the past month were more likely to not have used the Internet compared to those who had consumed alcohol [13]. On the other hand, smokers, marijuana users, and users of recreational or street drugs were all at increased odds of not using the Internet compared to their counterparts. Although the relationship between Internet use and these lifestyle factors has been explored in younger populations [28–30], more research is needed on older adults. Furthermore, Indigenous older adults who reported having fair/poor self-perceived mental health were at increased odds of Internet non-use compared to those who reported very good/excellent mental health. Ali-Hassan et al. (2019) [13] found similar results and highlight that although the association is prominent in the literature [31], it is unclear whether mental health plays a causative role in Internet use or the other way around. Internet use may lead to increased autonomy, increased levels of empowerment [32], lower levels of social isolation, which causes overall better mental health of Indigenous older adults. Alternatively, higher feelings of self-efficacy in older adults may be driving them to adopt new skills and use the Internet [13]. It may be that those who have better mental health are more willing to learn new skills such as information and communication technology (ICT) skills or have more self-esteem to get out of their comfort zones. Finally, Indigenous older adults who did not have unmet health needs were more likely to have not used the Internet. It is possible that those with unmet health needs turn to the Internet for information and resources to help address their needs.