The observed increase in WBC counts, particularly in the T2 (17.71 × 10⁹/L) and T4 (17.56 × 10⁹/L) groups, suggests a potential immunomodulatory effect of CBD supplementation in goats. This finding is confirmed by previous studies that demonstrated the anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory properties of CBD [21,22]. WBC values are closely aligned with those reported in goats treated with fresh hemp leaves [6]; however, the WBCs in this study exceeded the reference ranges (4–13) reported in the literature [6,23,24,25,26]. Higher levels of total protein and globulin in the higher dose may indicate immune response modulation [12] or changes in protein metabolism induced by CBD supplementation. In this study, control samples (0 mL), along with T2 (0.1 mL) and T3 (0.2 mL) treatments, presented values within the normal WBC range; however, the T4 treatment (0.3 mL) induced a significant increase compared to the established normal values [25,27]. The current evidence is inadequate to confirm a direct correlation between CBD supplementation and high levels of these proteins, as all groups received the same feed; consequently, further empirical studies are needed. In contrast, the serum protein profiles of subjects administered with CBD oil [28] and those treated with fresh hemp leaves [6] did not show significant differences. Alterations in serum sodium and carbon dioxide concentrations attributable to CBD supplementation might have a modulatory role in electrolyte equilibrium and acid–base homeostasis in animals. This observation is similar to goats that were fed fresh hemp leaves, which exhibited reduced blood electrolyte levels compared to the control group [6]; however, the findings stand in stark contrast to those documented in [28], where non-significant fluctuations were observed in these variables after CBD administration. The temporal variations observed in various serum and hematologic biochemical indices, including hematocrit, differential leukocyte counts, markers of renal function, protein ranges, and electrolyte levels, underscore the intrinsic dynamism of these physiological parameters. Such changeability may be indicative of adaptive physiological responses or innate biological variability within the goats subjected to CBD throughout the investigation.

Dietary incorporation of hemp-derived CBD in goats did not substantially alter the key indicators of growth performance or the carcass and non-carcass characteristics evaluated. Weight gain and average daily gain were approximately 14.8 kg and 164.5 g and were not adversely affected by treatments. Another study found that despite comparable body weights across treatments, a linear decrease in average daily gain was observed with increasing dietary inclusion of hemp seed meal up to 33%, suggesting a negative impact on the growth performance of meat goats [29]. The weight gain observed in this study is consistent with previous findings [30] that indicate CBD oil supplementation at levels of 0.5 or 1.5 mg/kg does not affect body weight or body condition scores in animals. Similarly, animals fed full-fat hemp seed [31] demonstrated comparable performance. In quails, growth performance variables were negatively affected when hemp seed oil was substituted for soybean oil in their diets [32]. However, broiler chickens supplemented with hemp seed meal exhibited a positive growth response [33]. Therefore, the effects of hemp-derived CBD oil on the growth performance of animals remain equivocal, with findings exhibiting substantial variability depending on the concentration administered and the species studied. Although some studies report positive impacts on growth performance, others show no effect or even adverse effects.

Earlier investigation suggests that CBD may possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anxiolytic properties, which could influence animal health and well-being [12]. In the current study, dietary CBD inclusion had nonsignificant effects on dressing percentage and most carcass composition variables, indicating minimal impact on carcass yield and the proportions of various carcass components. The only exception was a slightly lower hind shank percentage observed in the group that received the highest CBD level; however, this difference was relatively minor and unlikely to have practical implications for carcass quality or value. Similar findings were reported by [31,34]. In addition, Gurung et al. [35] observed no adverse effects on carcass characteristics when goats were fed a 30% hemp seed diet.

Meat pH is crucial for determining meat quality attributes such as color, water-holding capacity, and tenderness [13,36]. The CBD inclusion in the diet of finishing goats did not significantly affect the pH_u of the meat, indicating that post-mortem muscle metabolism and meat acidification processes were not compromised by the dietary treatments. This result aligns with previous studies on hemp in goats and cows [6,37]. Moreover, studies have demonstrated that meat redness is lower in animals fed fresh hemp leaves or hemp seeds compared to those in non-supplemented or soybean meal groups [6,37]. Particularly, the current incorporation of higher levels of CBD resulted in improved meat redness. The a* value exhibited a noticeable 17.94% reduction in the T2 group, while the T3 and T4 groups displayed marked increases of 14.51% and 21.97% relative to the control. This divergent response pattern was mirrored in the C* parameter, where the T2 group exhibited a 17.4% reduction, contrary to substantial increases of 11.1% and 20.6% in the T3 and T4 groups. The observed effects may be attributed to the putative antioxidant capacities of hemp-derived CBD [12,38,39,40], which could stabilize myoglobin pigments and inhibit their oxidation, thus conserving the preferred red color of the meat.

A study on transported goats fed fresh hemp leaves showed that their meat had lower shear force than the control but these results were not statistically different [6]. This is consistent with the findings in cows, where hemp seed supplementation does not have a significant influence on the tenderness of the meat [37]. Surprisingly, our CBD inclusion, particularly at levels of 0.2 and 0.3 mL, exhibited a tenderness-enhancing effect on the meat. The shear force, work of shear, hardness, and gumminess values were significantly lower in these treatment groups, indicating improved tenderness and a softer meat texture. The shear force exhibited a substantial 50.94% decrease in the T2 group, whereas the T3 and T4 groups displayed more modest reductions of 8.75% and 34.41%, respectively. The work of shear of the T2 group revealed a 16.39% reduction, contrasted with more pronounced reductions of 24.33% and 47.09% in the T3 and T4 groups. The ameliorative impact observed may be attributable to the modulatory influence of CBD on the structure of muscle fibers, the activity of proteolytic enzymes, or the muscle metabolism [41,42], culminating in the augmented degradation of myofibrillar proteins and consequent tenderization of the meat. Furthermore, CBD may influence muscle lipid profiles by modulating fatty acid transporters and inhibiting de novo lipogenesis. These results may potentially affect muscle structure and function [43].

Previous studies of hemp by-products, such as hemp seed oil and leaves, demonstrated the potential to reduce odor in meats [6]. Hemp leaves may decrease meat odor because of their phenolic compounds with antioxidant properties that inhibit lipid oxidation [38,44]. Dietary incorporation of CBD reduced the formation of spoilage volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including alcohols, trimethylamine, and pentanoic acid, in stressed birds [45]. Moreover, CBD supplementation causes fatty acid degradation followed by a decrease in the spoilage VOC levels [45]. The current inclusion of higher levels of CBD in the diet of finishing goats appeared to influence the odor profile of the meat; this was evident from significant differences observed in the values of specific sensors used for odor analysis. Sensor 1, sensitive to gaseous species such as butane, methane, and propane, exhibited a striking 52.04% and 70.41% increase in responses for the T3 (0.2 mL) and T4 (0.3 mL) CBD groups compared to the control (T1), suggesting a significant elevation in the presence of these compounds. Similarly, an increasing trend was observed for Sensor 3, which detects organic solvent vapors, as there were incremental increases of 18.16%, 33.50%, and 52.76% in T2, T3, and T4 relative to the control, implying a dose-dependent effect of CBD on these volatile species. Sensor 4, primarily responsive to methyl mercaptan and trimethylamine, displayed a substantial 78.26% elevation in the T4 group, whereas T2 exhibited a 66.67% reduction, highlighting the intricate interplay between CBD levels and the volatile profile. Finally, Sensor 8, which is sensitive to ammonia, revealed a 6.81, 13.36, and 5.37% increase in responses for the T2, T3, and T4 groups compared with the control, indicating a potential modulation of ammonia-or-related compounds by specific CBD concentrations. These findings underscore the potential impact of higher levels of CBD inclusion on the presence of these VOCs in meat, although the specific compounds contributing to this trend were not identified in this study.

A potential limitation of this study is its small sample size, which might hinder the generalizability of the findings. Moreover, sarcomere length, myofibrillar fragmentation index (MFI), and collagen solubility were not included in this study, which could have provided valuable insights into the structural properties of the meat. However, the limited possibility of identifying individual volatile compounds emerging from meat restricts the general knowledge of the factors underlying the overall flavor and aroma of meat.