Physiological effects claimed for hemp seeds contained in food preparations: an update
Directorate General for Hygiene, Food Safety and Nutrition, Ministry of Health, Rome
School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino
Directorate General for Health Prevention, Ministry of Health, Rome, Italy
Abstract
Food supplements are one of the most widely marketed food categories in the world. In relation to several cases of adverse effects reported due to the plant substances contained in these products, the attention of the scientific communities and public decision-makers should be directed to the physiological effects that can be attributed to these substances and that encourage their increasing sales to consumers. This is the case of the plant Cannabis sativa L. In order to evaluate the scientific validity of the physiological effects attributable to Cannabis sativa, a bibliographic search was carried out on the evidence published. This short manuscript has highlighted how, despite the presence on the market of a large number of plant substances present in food preparations, there is not always clear evidence to support the physiological effects attributed to these products. As a result, it is essential to monitor the market to safeguard the food safety of consumers worldwide.
Untitled section
Key words: food supplements, diet, food safety, herbals, integrative medicine
Article notes
Untitled section
Received 2025 Jan 21; Accepted 2025 Feb 3; Collection date 2025 May 27.
Introduction
In recent years, diet and nutrition have increasingly become the focus of the health needs of the population worldwide, and in Europe, their interconnection to the food system is also highlighted in the Green Deal strategy (Neufeld et al., 2023). The categorization of foods used to supplement the common diet encompasses foods for specific groups of populations, fortified foods, and food supplements (FS) (Zovi et al., 2024; Zovi et al., 2025). Specifically, FS are food products intended to integrate the common diet. Nowadays, FS are one of the most widely marketed food categories in the world, thus pharmacists and healthcare professionals have a crucial role in dispensing them and monitoring their consumption (Lordan, 2021). Data from markets around the world on the sale and consumption of FS indicate that herbal supplements have a large size of this market (Djaoudene et al., 2023). In 2021, the global market for functional foods, which includes food and herbal supplements, reached 500 billion USD, with an anticipated growth rate of 6.9% per year, aiming for approximately 745 billion USD by 2027 (European Commission, 2018). As an example, the United States and Italy represent significant contributors, with Italy ranking second globally, where the industry’s annual revenue exceeds 5 billion euros (Eurostat, 2023). Such growth is stimulated by increased consumer health awareness, especially post-COVID-19, and the trend toward sustainable wellness. Investments in herbal and food products are expected to support not only consumer health but also global economic growth and job creation in high-tech and scientific fields (Circular Economy Network, 2023). Concerning the well-being and the One Health approach and in relation to several cases of reported adverse effects due to the plant substances contained in food products, the attention of the scientific and regulatory communities should be placed on the physiological effects that are attributed to these substances and that encourage their growing sale to consumers (Colombo et al., 2020). This is the case, for example, of the plant Cannabis sativa L. of the Cannabaceae family, whose parts used in the composition of some FS are the seed and the oil obtained from the seed, which is used for their high nutritional value and functional characteristics (Vodolazska and Lauridsen, 2020; Banskota et al., 2022).
Methods
According to research conducted on the European market, the main physiological effects attributed to Cannabis are the integrity and functionality of cell membranes, the trophism and functionality of skin, the contrast of menstrual cycle disorders, and the improvement of joint functionality (European Food Safety Authority, 2024). All these properties can induce and stimulate the consumer to purchase these preparations. As a result, to evaluate the scientific validity of the physiological effects attributable to Cannabis sativa, a bibliographic search has been carried out by consulting the PubMed database. The study focused on studies conducted in humans, and the results of the bibliographic search are illustrated in Table 1 (Callaway et al., 2005; Schwab et al., 2006; Kaul et al., 2008; Rezapour-Firouzi, Arefhosseini, Mehdi et al., 2013; Rezapour-Firouzi, Arefhosseini, Farhoudi et al., 2013; Rezapour-Firouzi et al., 2014; Del Bò et al., 2019; Chaves et al., 2020). The search query set on the database included the terms “physiological”, “effects”, “cannabis”, “hemp”, “seed”, “food”, “human”, “animal” and the words “AND”, “OR”, “NOT”.
Results
A total of 8 studies out of 20 analyzed the activities and physiological properties attributable to hemp seeds as components of foods consumed by humans. The research showed that the studies examined are not always comparable due to the use of different parameters, including the types of experimental designs used, the different dosages between the preparations under study, and the individual constituents of the hemp-based preparations, such as oils, particularly concentrated in omega 3 (>70%). Furthermore, it is well known that in the literature, there is limited and not always recent evidence with respect to food studies conducted on humans, unlike preclinical studies conducted on animals. Overall, scientific literature seems to highlight some beneficial effects for humans due to the consumption of Cannabis, in particular in the treatment of atopic dermatitis, the functionality of some blood parameters, and the modulation of the inflammatory state. However, these effects are mostly attributable to hemp for its pharmacological activity and not to its use as a food. On the other hand, with reference to other physiological effects, such as the contrast of premenstrual syndrome, the improvement of joint functionality and cell membranes, there does not seem to be evidence attributable to the properties of Cannabis sativa seed oil.
Discussion and Conclusions
In conclusion, the studies examined in the literature available to date do not allow us to draw definitive answers regarding the plausibility of the physiological effects potentially related to the consumption of the plant Cannabis sativa contained in FS. It is noteworthy that FS are products that are increasingly occupying a share of the health product sales market. The freedom of access of consumers to this market, as well as the wide variability of ingredients and substances contained in these products, necessarily focuses attention on regulations that protect consumer safety and that are based on solid scientific evidence. This short communication has sought to highlight how, in the face of great demand from consumers and the presence on the market of a large number of plant substances present in food preparations, there is not always clear evidence to support the physiological effects attributed to these products. For public policymakers in matters of food safety, it is essential to monitor the market from this point of view. Similarly, for healthcare professionals, this criticality could represent an opportunity to carve out a key role in the health landscape to safeguard the health and safety of consumers.
Funding Statement
Funding: none.
Availability of data and materials
Research data are not shared.
References
Untitled section
References
- Banskota AH, Jones A, Hui JPM, Stefanova R, 2022. Triacylglycerols and other lipids profiling of hemp by-products. Molecules 27:2339.
- Callaway J, Schwab U, Harvima I, Halonen P, Mykkänen O, Hyvönen P, Järvinen T, 2005. Efficacy of dietary hempseed oil in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Dermatolog Treat 16:87-94.
- Chaves C, Bittencourt PCT, Pelegrini A, 2020. Ingestion of a THC-rich Cannabis oil in people with fibromyalgia: a randomized, doube-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Pain Med 21:2212-8.
- Circular Economy Network, 2023. Rapporto sull’economia circolare in Italia – 2023. Available from: https://circulareconomynetwork.it/rapporto-2023/.
- Colombo F, Di Lorenzo C, Biella S, Vecchio S, Frigerio G, Restani P, 2020. Adverse effects to food supplements containing botanical ingredients. J Funct Foods 72:103990.
- Del Bò C, Deon V, Abello F, Massini G, Porrini M, Riso P, Guardamagna O, 2019. Eight-week hempseed oil intervention improves the fatty acid composition of erythrocyte phospholipids and the omega-3 index, but does not affect the lipid profile in children and adolescents with primary hyperlipidemia. Food Res Int 119:469-76.
- Djaoudene O, Romano A, Bradai YD, Zebiri F, Ouchene A, Yousfi Y, Amrane-Abider M, Sahraoui-Remini Y, Madani K, 2023. A global overview of food supplements: regulation, market trends, usage during the COVID-19 pandemic, and health effects. Nutrients 15:3320.
- European Commission, 2018. A sustainable bioeconomy for Europe: strengthening the connection between economy, society and the environment. Available from: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/edace3e3-e189-11e8-b690-01aa75ed71a1/language-en.
- European Food Safety Authority, 2024. Botanicals. Available from: questions-on-hold-botanical-claims.xlsx (live.com). Accessed on: 14/12/2023.
- EUROSTAT, 2023. EUROSTAT database. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database
- Kaul N, Kreml R, Austria JA, Richard MN, Edel AL, Dibrov E, Hirono S, Zettler ME, Pierce GN, 2008. A comparison of fish oil, flaxseed oil and hempseed oil supplementation on selected parameters of cardiovascular health in healthy volunteers. J Am Coll Nutr 27:51-8.
- Lordan R, 2021. Food supplements and nutraceuticals market growth during the coronavirus pandemic - Implications for consumers and regulatory oversight. PharmaNutrition 18:100282.
- Neufeld LM, Ho E, Obeid R, Tzoulis C, Green M, Huber LG, Stout M, Griffiths JC, 2023. Advancing nutrition science to meet evolving global health needs. Eur J Nutr 62:1-16.
- Rezapour-Firouzi S, Arefhosseini SR, Ebrahimi-Mamaghani M, Baradaran B, Sadeghihokmabad E, Torbati M, Mostafaei S, Chehreh M, Zamani F, 2014. Activity of liver enzymes in multiple sclerosis patients with Hot-nature diet and co-supplemented hemp seed, evening primrose oils intervention. Complement Ther Med;22:986-93.
- Rezapour-Firouzi S, Arefhosseini SR, Farhoudi M, Ebrahimi-Mamaghani M, Rashidi MR, Torbati MA, Baradaran B, 2013. Association of expanded disability status scale and cytokines after intervention with co-supplemented hemp seed, evening primrose oils and hot-natured diet in multiple sclerosis patients. Bioimpacts 2013;3:43-7.
- Rezapour-Firouzi S, Arefhosseini SR, Mehdi F, Mehrangiz EM, Baradaran B, Sadeghihokmabad E, Mostafaei S, Fazljou SM, Torbati MA, Sanaie S, Zamani F, 2013. Immunomodulatory and therapeutic effects of Hot-nature diet and co-supplemented hemp seed, evening primrose oils intervention in multiple sclerosis patients. Complement Ther Med 21:473-80.
- Schwab US, Callaway JC, Erkkilä AT, Gynther J, Uusitupa MI, Järvinen T, 2006. Effects of hempseed and flaxseed oils on the profile of serum lipids, serum total and lipoprotein lipid concentrations and haemostatic factors. Eur J Nutr 45:470-7.
- Vodolazska D, Lauridsen C, 2020. Effects of dietary hemp seed oil to sows on fatty acid profiles, nutritional and immune status of piglets. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 11:28. Erratum in: J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2020;11: 58.
- Zovi A, Cifani C, Confalonieri C, Lasala R, Sabbatucci M, Vitiello A, Vittori S, 2024. Dietary management and access to treatment for patients with glucose deficiency syndrome type 1: an overview review with focus on the European regulatory framework. Eur J Clin Nutr 78:1058-63.
- Zovi A, Vitiello A, Sabbatucci M, Musazzi UM, Sagratini G, Cifani C, Vittori S, 2025. Food supplements marketed worldwide: a comparative analysis between the European and the U.S. regulatory frameworks. J Diet Suppl 22:25-40.
Associated Data
Data Availability Statement
Research data are not shared.