Optimization, Kinetics, and Thermodynamics of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Phytochemicals from Hemp

Abstract Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a rich source of bioactive compounds, yet efficient extraction strategies that maximize beneficial cannabidiol (CBD), phenolics, and flavonoids while minimizing the psychoactive tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) remain insufficiently explored. This study aimed to bridge this gap by optimizing ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of phytochemicals from hemp and elucidating the underlying kinetics and thermodynamics. Using response surface methodology (RSM), optimal conditions within the tested range of 5–15 mL g–1 liquid–solid (L–S) ratio, 45–65 min, and 10–30 °C were