Nano-biochar regulates phage–host interactions, reducing antibiotic resistance genes in vermicomposting systems

Abstract Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are widely disseminated in organic waste treatment systems, posing significant threats to environmental safety and human health. However, the ecological roles of phages in ARGs dissemination and their environmental regulation remain poorly understood, hindering effective risk management. This study demonstrates that nano-biochar, as a sustainable material, suppresses lysogenic phages and promotes a “phage shunt” effect, reshaping phage–host interactions in vermicomposting and reducing ARGs transmission. By revealing the niche-specific roles of phages and the regulatory potential