Alternative Approaches and Plant‐Based Remedies for Livestock Health Management Among the Batswana of Southern Africa: A Review

Article type: Review Article

Keywords: animal health, antimicrobial, bioactivity, one health, phytochemicals

Authors: Tswelelopele G. Mpolokeng, Ndzalama Shikwambana, Mompati V. Chakale, John A. Asong, Lyndy J. McGaw, Stephen O. Amoo, Nqobile A. Masondo, Adeyemi O. Aremu ⚬

Affiliations: Indigenous Knowledge Systems Centre Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences North‐West University Mmabatho South Africa; South African Research Chairs Initiative in Indigenous Knowledge‐Driven Medicinal Plants Utilisation and Conservation Strategies for Human, Animal, and Crop Health (IK‐Medplants4HAC), Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences North‐West University Mmabatho South Africa; Agricultural Research Council – Vegetable, Industrial and Medicinal Plants Pretoria South Africa; Phytomedicine Programme, Department of Paraclinical Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Science University of Pretoria Onderstepoort South Africa; Unit For Environmental Sciences and Management, Faculty of Natural and Agriculture Sciences North‐West University Potchefstroom South Africa; School of Agriculture and Science College of Agriculture Engineering and Science University of KwaZulu‐Natal Durban South Africa

License: © 2026 The Author(s). Chemistry & Biodiversity published by Wiley‐VHCA AG. CC BY 4.0 This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Article links: DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202503248  |  PubMed: 41996606  |  PMC: PMC13090005

Relevance: Moderate: mentioned 3+ times in text

Full text: PDF (4.8 MB)

Introduction

Globally, livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, and horses play crucial roles in human life by providing food, generating income, and supplying materials, while also symbolising wealth, and are linked to social standing and cultural heritage. Additionally, they contribute to tourism and employment opportunities [ref. 1, ref. 2, ref. 3]. Livestock husbandry is an integral part of the livelihoods of Batswana communities in southern Africa, providing economic support and cultural significance [ref. 4, ref. 5]. The Batswana are part of the Bantu‐speaking people and found across several countries in southern Africa [ref. 6, ref. 7]. Archaeological evidence suggests that livestock rearing took place from the later Stone Age in southern Africa [ref. 8], with historical link to east Africa [ref. 9]. Livestock have always been significant to the Bantu‐speaking agropastoral people of southern Africa, and still in present times, they remain important commodities used for wealth transfer and are valued in some cultures for their connections with ancestors [ref. 10]. The Batswana were selected as the focus of this review due to their wide geographical distribution across southern Africa, strong livestock‐based livelihoods, and well‐documented reliance on ethnoveterinary medicine [ref. 11]. Despite this, existing knowledge remains fragmented, necessitating a consolidated and critical synthesis. Livestock contribute greatly to food security in rural communities, provide invaluable ecological services, and are also used in traditional rituals [ref. 12].

However, limited access to conventional veterinary services, coupled with their high cost, has led to the widespread reliance on traditional methods for managing livestock health [ref. 13]. These methods, deeply rooted in indigenous knowledge systems, often involve the use of plant‐based remedies to manage a variety of livestock ailments [ref. 14]. Plant‐based remedies have long been recognised as an affordable and sustainable alternative to conventional veterinary medicine [ref. 15]. Among the Batswana, these remedies are employed to manage conditions ranging from reproductive disorders and gastrointestinal problems to respiratory infections and wounds.

Veterinary phytomedicine has long been practiced by indigenous communities worldwide. In sub‐Saharan Africa, its effectiveness has largely been based on oral traditions and practical use rather than formal documentation [ref. 16]. In contrast, other regions such as India have preserved records of traditional veterinary medicine in Ayurvedic texts [ref. 17]. These remedies are believed to have developed through trial and error or by observing animal self‐medication [ref. 17]. Many medicinal plants used in traditional veterinary practices contain bioactive compounds with antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, and anti‐parasitic properties, making them valuable for treating infections, wounds, and other livestock health issues [ref. 18]. Southern Africa, which is recognised as a biodiversity hotspot, harbors numerous plant species with potential for veterinary applications [ref. 19, ref. 20]. The secondary metabolites in these plants contribute to animal health and provide a cost‐effective alternative to synthetic drugs. They also help address critical challenges such as antimicrobial resistance and drug residues in animal products [ref. 21, ref. 22]. Despite the widespread use and cultural significance of these remedies, scientific documentation and validation/valorisation of their efficacy remain sparse [ref. 23, ref. 24].

Furthermore, understanding the pharmacological properties of these plants presents an opportunity to develop affordable and accessible veterinary products with proven efficacy and safety [ref. 25]. The current review entails an appraisal of the existing ethnoveterinary knowledge, biological activities, and phytochemical profile of plants used for managing livestock health among the Batswana in southern Africa. By highlighting the strengths and gaps in the current knowledge, the review aims to contribute to the increasing body of evidence supporting sustainable livestock management practices in southern Africa. Additionally, it identifies opportunities for future research into the pharmacological potential of traditional remedies, emphasising the importance of preserving, valorising, and integrating indigenous knowledge into contemporary veterinary medicine.

Methods

The review is based on published ethnoveterinary studies conducted amongst Batswana communities from January 1997 to June 2024. The systematic review is structured according to PRISMA guidelines [ref. 26]. Electronic databases such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and Scopus were used to search for literature. Furthermore, published literature from dissertations, theses, and ethnobotanical books retrieved from the North‐West University online repositories were used in the review. Diverse keywords and phrases were used to access eligible articles. These included “medicinal plants for livestock, livestock health management, Batswana, indigenous knowledge, livestock management, southern Africa, and ethnoveterinary practices”. The Boolean operators of ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ were included to extend the search. Bibliographies of selected articles were also examined to identify further references that might have been omitted from the initial searches. The articles included in this review focused on Batswana communities in southern Africa and explicitly reported the use of ethnoveterinary medicine in managing livestock health care. The collected information included Latin and local names of the plants, plant parts, diseases or conditions treated, preparation methods and mode of administration, and the classification of livestock conditions. Publications were excluded if they focused on modern or non‐plant‐based veterinary practices, were conducted outside southern Africa, did not focus on Batswana communities, or lacked sufficient details on the ethnoveterinary practices and plant species used. Studies not available in English were also excluded. All scientific plant names were verified using the “Plants of the World Online | Kew Science” (https://powo.science.kew.org/).

A total of 848 studies were recorded from various scientific databases (Figure 1), which included journal articles, theses, books, and dissertations on the ethnoveterinary studies conducted across southern Africa from 1997 until June 2024. During the screening phase, the titles and abstracts of all the articles were reviewed. A total of 591 duplicate articles were removed after applying the eligibility criteria. Following an additional individual screening of the remaining 257 studies, 105 articles were removed because their abstracts lacked the specified keywords, the studies focused solely on modern medicines, or did not explicitly relate to livestock management. A total of 140 articles were also excluded either because they are not available in English language, did not focus on Batswana, were not related to ethnoveterinary practices, such as those on modern or non‐plant‐based veterinary methods or the studies were conducted outside southern Africa, while the remaining 12 studies were eligible (Figure 1).

To assess the biological activity and safety assessment as well as the phytochemical profiles of plants identified as being used in Batswana ethnoveterinary medicine, a further literature search guided by the generated plant inventory and using the target biological activities as search keywords was undertaken. Journals, books and reports that focused on animal health were considered. The literature was searched using specific keywords on international databases such as Scopus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect.

Results and Discussion

Literature Search Output

In this review, the eligible studies covered two countries namely South Africa and Botswana. In terms of geographical distribution of the eligible ethnoveterinary studies, there were more studies among the Batswana communities in Botswana (58.33%) compared to eligible studies in South Africa (41.67%) (Table 1). Following a detailed analysis, 72.61% of the documented plants were from studies conducted in South Africa while 27.38% of the plants were from Botswana. Even though more studies were conducted in Botswana, the ethnoveterinary practices in South Africa contributed a higher portion in terms of diversity of plant species used for livestock health conditions. This could be attributed to several factors, such as ecological diversity in South Africa contributing to a broader range of medicinal plants, or more comprehensive documentation of plant species within South Africa [ref. 27].

The types of participants involved in each study has significant impact on the scope and depth of generated data [ref. 28]. Farmers (63.63%), community members (18.18%), traditional healers (18.18%), extension officers (9.09%), and knowledgeable elders (9.09%) provide first‐hand knowledge of plant usage in livestock health (Table 1). The expertise of farmers, community members, extension officers, knowledgeable elders, and traditional healers is largely derived from years of experience in livestock management, where they use traditional practices to address various health issues [ref. 29]. Such knowledge brings unique perspectives and practices to the preservation and application of indigenous health systems in managing livestock health. In many parts of Africa, these knowledge sources provide practical and accessible solutions for livestock health, serving as vital resources where modern veterinary services are lacking or not accessible [ref. 28].

Semi‐structured questionnaires (50%), rapid Rural Techniques (20%) and participatory research model (10%) were used to document the methodological framework of the studies in South Africa and Botswana (Table 1). The combination of semi‐structured questionnaires, rapid rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques, and participatory research approaches offers a comprehensive approach to studying ethnoveterinary practices [ref. 30, ref. 31, ref. 32]. These methods enable researchers to gather in‐depth, reliable data while fostering collaboration and inclusivity with Batswana communities [ref. 33]. The different methods provide an excellent opportunity to explore and experiment with various techniques, facilitating the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data [ref. 34]. The dual approach allows researchers to address contemporary theoretical issues surrounding the development, nature, and transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge [ref. 35].

Ethnoveterinary Status of Plant Species Used by the Batswana to Manage Livestock Health Conditions

Using the eligible literature, an analysis on the ethnoveterinary research that focused on the Batswana was conducted. Diverse aspect related to the identified plants and associated indigenous knowledge and practices are elaborated accordingly.

Diversity of Plant Species With Ethnoveterinary Records

A total of 116 plant species from 44 families were recorded as being used in the management of livestock health conditions in South Africa and Botswana (Table 2). Senna italica, Terminalia sericea, Ziziphus mucronata, Peltophorum africanum, Drimia sanguinea, and Aloe ferox were the most cited plant species, representing 37.06% of the generated plant inventory. The plants are reported to be used as multifunctional medicine for the treatment of various livestock diseases, including gastrointestinal infections, respiratory disorders, wound healing, and ectoparasitic infestations. These conditions are among the most frequently cited in ethnoveterinary studies, highlighting the broad‐spectrum use of these plant‐based remedies. Additionally, the health benefits of some of the most cited ethnoveterinary plant species has been demonstrated in other African countries such as Cameroon [ref. 36], Namibia [ref. 37, ref. 38], Ethiopia [ref. 39, ref. 40], and Zimbabwe [ref. 41]. The prevalence of Aloe species in the disease management of Zimbabwean poultry (e.g., wounds, diarrhoea, and ectoparasites) was held to be indicative of efficacy for the plant [ref. 42]. Geographical distribution, availability and health benefits of Aloe species (Aloe ferox, Aloe greatheadii, Aloe marlothii, Aloe vera, Aloe zebrina) in different African regions could be the contributing factor in their common usage for disease management or conditions such as wounds, constipation and retained placenta. The dominance of the Aloe genus illustrates its pharmacological potential, adaptability and broad‐spectrum efficacy as the plants are frequently praised for their anti‐inflammatory, and laxative properties [ref. 43]. The patterns of findings on species such as Aloe sp. align with the patterns observed in South Africa and Botswana, suggesting a shared reliance on specific taxa across different regions of Africa. The relatively high citation frequency of other commonly used plants such as Senna italica and Terminalia sericea demonstrates their perceived effectiveness and suggests their broad applicability in managing livestock conditions. In terms of popularity, plants with high citation frequencies, availability, and versatility in managing multiple conditions emerged as key species across the surveyed regions. About 42% of the recorded plants (Boophone disticha, Boscia albitrunca, Croton gratissimus, Entada elephantina, Gomphocarpus fruticosus, Grewia flava, Grewia flavescens, Hypoxis hemerocallidea and Vachellia karroo) were identified as the most popularly used plants based on their high citation number (3‐5), availability and/or uses (2‐9) in the management of multiple livestock conditions. The high frequency of citation for most used plants could indicate their effectiveness in managing diverse livestock diseases/conditions, considering that these practices in indigenous knowledge have often been refined over time.

Distribution of Plant Families Used to Manage Livestock Health Conditions

The recorded 116 plants were distributed within 44 families with the Fabaceae (12), Euphorbiaceae (9), Asteraceae (9), Solanaceae (8), Asparagaceae (6), Asphodelaceae (6) and Malvaceae (6) having the highest cited number of plants used to manage livestock conditions among Batswana people in southern Africa (Figure 2 and Table 2). Similarly, the high utilisation of the Fabaceae in managing different livestock conditions has been reported in ethnobotanical reviews or studies conducted in Africa [ref. 44, ref. 45, ref. 46]. The top 10 families comprised 56.89% of the total cited plants, while the remaining (42.24%) plants were represented within 34 other families. Furthermore, 84.09% of the families had relatively low representation averaging 1–4 plant species per family. The prevalent use of the Fabaceae family may likely be attributed to its broad distribution, high species richness, and diverse bioactive compounds known for their pharmacological properties [ref. 47, ref. 48, ref. 49]. This diversity reflects the broad spectrum of traditional plant knowledge across southern Africa, where various families are utilised for their specific benefits in livestock health management.

Pattern of Plant Parts Used, Preparation, and Route of Administration Methods

A total of 15 plant parts were used for treating livestock diseases among Batswana in southern Africa (Table 2). The most common plant parts used were roots (33%), leaves (26%), and whole plant (12%) (Figure 3A, Table S1). The popularity of roots as one of the most preferred plant parts has led to significant conservation challenges. The harvest of underground parts as a practice is often unsustainable, causing irreversible damage to plant populations and contributing to the risk of species decline which can lead to extinction [ref. 50, ref. 51]. The dominance of root usage in Batswana ethnoveterinary practices may be attributed to their belief in the strength and vitality that the earth imparts to these underground parts [ref. 52, ref. 53, ref. 54]. Roots and leaves are the most frequently used, reflecting traditional preferences for these accessible and widely applicable plant parts [ref. 13, ref. 55, ref. 56].

The methods of preparing medicinal plants for livestock conditions in southern Africa highlight a range of traditional techniques tailored to different health conditions [ref. 57]. Decoctions (24%) and infusions (16%) were the most common preparation methods used for medicinal plants among Batswana in southern Africa (Figure 3B). Decoction entails boiling the plant materials while infusion involves pouring cold/hot/warm water onto the plant material and allowing the mixture to steep and cool. Furthermore, poultices (10%) are primarily used for external treatments including wound care, skin infections and inflammation. This method involves crushing plant materials and applying them directly to the affected area. Grinding of the plant materials constituted 10% of the reported preparation methods. On the other hand, methods of preparation such as maceration (3.4%), burning (0.38%) and roasting (0.38%) were generally low (Table S2). It is important to highlight that a significant portion (36%) of the plant preparations do not have the specific method used. This could be due to traditional practices where the method is considered implicit or universally understood within the communities.

In southern African ethnoveterinary practices, the mode of administering medicinal plants varies significantly, with oral administration (44%) and topical applications (19%) being the most frequently cited practices (Figure 3C). Oral administration is favoured for treatments targeting internal ailments (e.g., organ damage, inflammation, infections), and topical applications is a localised practice used for conditions such as wounds and skin infections, offering a targeted approach for external relief [ref. 58]. The high percentage of unspecified administration (37%) suggests some flexibility in traditional practices, where the method may depend on the practitioner’s preference or the circumstances of each treatment. This distribution of administration routes highlights the adaptability and specificity of traditional livestock health condition treatment approaches [ref. 59].

Livestock Health Conditions Treated With Plants by the Batswana in Southern Africa

A total of 58 livestock conditions identified were categorised into 10 major groups (Table 3). The classification of the different diseases was based on the studies by Chakale et al. [ref. 60] and Ndou [ref. 61], with some slight modifications. Some of the dominant categories included, reproduction disorders (121), gastrointestinal problems (97), and skin problems (74). On the other hand, treatment of conditions such as eye problems and musculoskeletal systems were relatively lower in significance. This may reflect a lower prevalence of these issues or the possibility that such conditions are managed through other methods or external interventions beyond traditional plant‐based remedies. Retained placenta (81), diarrhoea (65), and wounds (44) were the most cited conditions managed within the livestock conditions (Table 3). Among these, retained placenta emerged as the most cited health condition. This underscores the importance of managing reproductive health in livestock, as issues such as retained placenta can significantly affect the productivity and reproductive efficiency of animals [ref. 15, ref. 52, ref. 62]. The frequent citation of gastrointestinal disorders shows the critical need for remedies to ensure digestive health, as poor digestion can lead to reduced nutrient absorption, weight loss, and lower productivity in livestock [ref. 56, ref. 63]. Skin problems were also prominent, with eight conditions cited, including wounds. The high number of references to wound treatment suggests that topical application of plant‐based remedies is a crucial aspect of traditional veterinary care [ref. 14, ref. 64]. The wound‐related problems may reflect the challenges posed by injuries sustained during grazing, handling, or attacks by predators, making wound care an essential aspect of livestock management [ref. 13].

The widespread use of medicinal plants reflects both their accessibility and cultural significance, demonstrating how southern African communities have developed adaptive strategies for livestock disease management. Research underscores the potential of medicinal plants in ethnoveterinary practices, emphasising the need for systematic evaluations of their biological and pharmacological effects [ref. 65, ref. 66]. Further investigation into the efficacy and safety of these plant‐based treatments could enhance their application and facilitate their integration into sustainable livestock management practices. Additionally, systematic documentation and conservation efforts are essential to ensure the continued availability of these medicinal plant species for future generations [ref. 67].

Cultural Significance of Local Names for Plants Among the Batswana of Southern Africa

Among the Batswana communities in South Africa and Botswana, plants play a crucial role in ethnoveterinary medicine, with local names serving as key identifiers in traditional healing practices. These indigenous names encapsulate generations of botanical knowledge, reflecting the deep relationship between the people and their environment [ref. 68]. Local nomenclature provides valuable insights into plant characteristics, including their medicinal applications, ecological adaptations and distinctive morphological and sensory features such as size, shape, taste, smell and habitat [ref. 69].

The naming of medicinal plants among the Batswana is rooted in observation and cultural significance, with each name often describing a particular attribute or use of the plant. For instance, Senna italica (Sebete/Sebetebete) is named based on its use as a purgative to treat digestive disorders in livestock, while Hypoxis hemerocallidea (Tshuku ya poo) is recognised for its immune‐boosting properties and treatment of infections in cattle. Similarly, Grewia flava (Moretlwa) is applied to wounds due to its antibacterial effects, and Aloe ferox (Mokgwapha) is valued for alleviating respiratory infections in goats and cattle (Table 2).

The classification of medicinal plants among the Batswana communities in South Africa and Botswana is often inconsistent. In some instances, a single plant species may be identified by multiple local names within the same region. For example, Entada elephantina is known by three different names in various areas of South Africa and Botswana which are Mosetlhane, Mositsane and Bosetsana. Conversely, a single local name can be used to describe multiple plant species, leading to potential confusion in plant identification and application. For instance, the name Sekgalofatshe is associated with different species, including Ziziphus oxyphylla and Ziziphus zeyheriana.

Biological Activity, Safety Status and Phytochemicals of Medicinal Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records Among the Batswana of Southern Africa

After establishing the inventory of 116 plants used by the Batswana to manage their livestock, existing evidence on the biological effects, safety assessments and the phytochemicals of these botanicals were assessed. This was essential to identify plants with empirical data and potential for further research especially on their valorisation.

Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records

Herbal remedies are the oldest form of medication, generally used as multi‐target agents. As of 2024, approximately 3 780 plants have been recorded for medicinal purposes in South Africa [ref. 70]. However, there are no recent updates on the number of plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine [ref. 71]. Over 60 plants used by the Batswana people have been previously analysed for biological properties related to ethnoveterinary and their phytochemical composition (Tables 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, Figures 4, 5, 6). Traditional medicine covers interdisciplinary research which involves observation, description and conducting experimental analysis of the identified medicinal plants for drug discovery. During the observation stages, plant part usage is crucial as medicinal plants have different kinds of bioactive compounds that accumulate in specific organs at different concentrations. As depicted in Figure 5, leaves were the most studied plant parts (46%) due to their availability, accessibility and plant conservation concerns, even though their frequency of use was 26% in the ethnoveterinary surveys reported (Figure 3A). Availability of plant materials and the complexities of bioactive compounds contribute to the high use of leaves [ref. 72]. In the documented ethnoveterinary surveys, roots were the most frequently used (33%) plant part by the Batswana communities, yet leaves accounted for 11% of the plant parts studied (lower than bark usage, 12%) in biological, safety and phytochemical analysis. The low use of seeds and fruits may be attributed to their seasonal availability [ref. 73]. Similar findings of limited usage of fruits and seeds were observed in the literature surveys.

Extraction of bioactive compounds in different plant parts is highly dependent on the extraction solvents. The solvent is selected based on the polarity of targeted compounds, purpose of extraction, cost of solvent, safety of solvent, and potential energy demand for heating solvents [ref. 74, ref. 75]. The common use of water as an extractant can be attributed to its general use in traditional medicine to mimic ethnoveterinary practices involving maceration, decoction, poultice and infusions [ref. 76]. In the reviewed data (Figure 6), the use of water as an extractant was reported in 16% of the studies with methanol being the most prominent solvent used in majority of the studies (22%). Compounds with antimicrobial activity such as ketones, aldehydes and organic acids are extracted in high quantities using methanol as a solvent [ref. 77]. Ethanol (alcohol) is also widely used in traditional medicine as an alternative extractant to water in the reviewed literature and its use was calculated at 14%. Solvents reportedly used for plant extractions that had a low rate of use included petroleum ether (4%) and chloroform (4%) (Figure 4). The type of solvent used in plant extraction is also associated with the experimental analysis that is conducted, including biological activity, safety, phytochemical quantification, and bioactive compound isolation. Generally, biological activity (in vitro studies) in medicinal plants is investigated based on the ethnobotanical practices recorded by indigenous communities.

In the current review, the ethnoveterinary practices of medicinal plants used by the Batswana communities were assessed by examining the medicinal properties e.g., antimicrobial, antiparasitic, anti‐inflammatory, antioxidant, and toxicity of the plants. As a common trend in medicinal plant research, in vitro biological assays conducted accounted for 84% of the studies with in vivo assays contributing towards 16% of the research. Basically, plants that had noteworthy in vitro activity and have potential in drug discovery (interesting bioactive compounds) are further analysed in vivo, and such tests produce more accurate results than in vitro experiments. Unfavourable in vitro results may eliminate the need for further in vivo studies [ref. 78].

Antimicrobial Activity

Antimicrobial screening is the most common method applied for primary analysis of biological activity because it is quick, efficient and the resources required are usually readily affordable. Particularly, the serial dilution microplate assay is the most preferred method for evaluating the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of plants against different test microbial strains, with more than 2 900 citations to date (accessed 08/02/2025) [ref. 79]. Following the recommended classification [ref. 80, ref. 81], extracts with MIC values > 0.32 mg/mL are regarded as exerting weak antimicrobial activity. However, higher MIC values may still be relevant for ethnopharmacological investigations [ref. 80]. The criteria for establishing activity of plant extracts are variable across difference sources, with noteworthy MIC values ranging from 8000 to ≤ 160 µg/mL [ref. 81]. MIC values < 0.1 mg/mL are also regarded as good by another author, while MIC values > 0.625 mg/mL was considered as weak [ref. 82, ref. 83]. For plant extracts used in traditional medicine, the MIC values of below 8 mg/mL are considered active [ref. 84]. Other authors considered a value as high as 12.5 mg/mL as active [ref. 85]. However, this review considers MIC as good/noteworthy when the activity is from <0.02 to 0.16 mg/mL [ref. 80]. Additionally, other in vitro assays used to determine antimicrobial activity included TLC bioautography, and agar disc diffusion [ref. 86, ref. 87, ref. 88]. Based on the results reported in Table 4, the serial dilution method was the most frequently applied technique followed by the agar disc diffusion assay. During the antimicrobial bioassays, microbial and fungal strains associated with animal gastrointestinal illnesses, skin infection, mastitis, and respiratory diseases amongst others were investigated in several studies, possibly due to the medicinal utilisation of the plants in ethnoveterinary medicine. The five most studied strains were Staphylococcus spp. (16.1%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (11.9%), Escherichia coli (11.9%), Candida spp. (8.8%) and Klebsiella spp. (7.7%) (Figure 7). These pathogens are associated with most of the commonly reported ailments treated with medicinal plants. Aloe marlothii and Aloe zebrina extracts had excellent activity (MIC = 0.028 and 0.039 mg/mL) against E. coli [ref. 89, ref. 90]. This corroborates the perceived efficacy of the two Aloe species by the communities as they are reportedly used for diarrhoea and other infections [ref. 64, ref. 91]. Cassia abbreviata extracts had noteworthy activity against P.aeruginosa (MIC = 46.88 µg/mL), K. pneumoniae (MIC = 46.88 µg/mL), and good activity against C. albicans (MIC = 93.75 µg/mL) [ref. 92]. Dicerocaryum eriocarpum had good activity against Mycobacterium aurum (MIC = 0.156 mg/mL) but weak activity against C. albicans (MIC = 4.5 mg/mL) [ref. 90]. None of the conditions reported to be treated by D. eriocarpum are related to the tested pathogens [ref. 52, ref. 62, ref. 63, ref. 91], therefore the results do not support the traditional use. Searsia lancea had excellent activity (MIC range = 0.02–0.08 mg/mL) against the mastitis‐causing pathogens E. coli, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae and Streptococcus uberis [ref. 93]. This may merit the use of S. lancea for treating diarrhoea resulting from one or more of the tested pathogens [ref. 91].

Diverse techniques are applied when observing the in vivo activity of medicinal plant extracts and these include visual examination of wound healing activity after topical application [ref. 94], faecal bacterial load [ref. 95], and determining secondary infection symptoms such as pulmonary burden after ingestion [ref. 96]. Study by Amoussa et al. [ref. 95] revealed that A. afra had notable in vitro activity (MIC range = 0.25–0.312 mg/mL) against non‐typhoidal Salmonella field isolates and ATCC strains and demonstrated the efficacy of the plant extracts against biofilm formation. From the same study, there is evidence of in vivo activity as the orally administered A. afra at 200 mg/kg/bw extracts completely eliminated the faecal bacterial load in mice after eight days [ref. 95]. Terminalia sericea was effective at reducing the induced wound associated with S. schenckii infection on mice, after excellent activity (MIC = 0.03 mg/mL) against S. schenckii was reported [ref. 97]. In vivo studies can also reveal additional information about the mode of action of the plant extract [ref. 96]. Additionally, these studies also confirm the potential of medicinal plant extracts to function as multitarget drugs [ref. 98]. A combination of in vivo and in vitro studies is important to further determine the efficacy of the plant extracts against the target strains. Artemisia afra is one plant that has been reported to have good antimicrobial activity in vitro against several strains of Salmonella spp. which is also supported by noteworthy in vivo activity [ref. 95]. However, an in vivo study revealed that the orally administered A. afra leaf water and DCM extracts had no antimycobacterial activity, despite the positive in vitro activity [ref. 96]. The phytochemicals associated with antimicrobial activities are terpenoids and phenolic compounds with hydroxyl groups which interrupt the bacterial cell membrane permeability [ref. 99]. The presence of such compounds in the aqueous bark extract of Ximenia americana [ref. 100] is consistent with the good antimicrobial activity reported against Bacillus subtilis (MIC = 0.20 mg/mL). It is presumed that the mode of action of most antimicrobial agents is by creating structural changes to the bacterial cell membrane which affects the integrity of the membrane [ref. 101]. Commonly, this results in lysis of the cells and leakage of the contents leading to cell death [ref. 98, ref. 101].

Antiparasitic Activity

Determining the antiparasitic activity of medicinal plants is of great significance in subtropical regions because the climatic conditions are breeding grounds for parasite infestations especially in animals [ref. 102]. In Batswana ethnoveterinary, examples of plants with notable in vitro antiparasitic activity includew Acokanthera oppositifolia, Aloe ferox, Aloe marlothii, Artemesia afra, Combretum hereroense, Dicerocaryum eriocarpum, Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Nicotiana tabacum, Sclerocarya birrea, Securidaca longepedunculata, Thamsosma rhodesica, and Ximenia americana (Table 5). In vitro assays such as egg hatch and parasite mortality assays are important in determining plant pesticidal activity [ref. 103]. However, in vitro studies usually target a single parasite, meanwhile multi‐parasitism is common in livestock [ref. 104]. On the other hand, in vivo assays typically involve topical application of plant extracts for external parasites, or oral ingestion for effective treatment of gastrointestinal parasites [ref. 105]. Parameters used to determine antiparasitic activity can reveal secondary effects, making them a suitable multitarget approach [ref. 106]. In vitro anthelminthic activity of Aloe ferox was reported [ref. 107] and in vivo studies supporting the activity of the extracts were conducted [ref. 54, ref. 108]. The authors observed that water extracts administered orally were able to reduce worm eggs and inhibit larval development [ref. 54, ref. 108]. As shown in Table 2, Nicotiana tabacum was cited twice in this report for use against parasites [ref. 63, ref. 109]. It has been tested against several parasites yielding positive results for in vitro and in vivo [ref. 110]. Ximenia americana had good activity (100% mortality) against Rhipicephalus microplus, however it has been reportedly used for internal parasites [ref. 91]. Fatty acids and fatty acid esters are believed to be responsible for nematocidal activity exhibited by plant extracts [ref. 111]. Phenolic compounds which are usually produced by plants to deter pests, also contribute to antiparasitic activity of plants [ref. 112]. Phytochemicals with proven nematocidal activity (e.g., tannins), have been isolated from plants used by the Batswana, including ganglion stimulants from Nicotiana tabacum leaves, which is similar to the active ingredient of levamisole (control agent) [ref. 113].

Anti‐Inflammatory Activity

Inflammation can be a result of physical injury, infection or other ailments [ref. 114, ref. 115]. In vitro activity is commonly determined by the inhibition of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes [ref. 116]. Anti‐inflammatory and other pain‐related assays had the highest rate (47%) of in vivo studies reported (Table 6). Physical evidence of pain and inflammation can be assessed visually in the tail‐flick assay and paw lick test [ref. 117], and by observing morphological changes during wound healing [ref. 118]. In vivo studies on Vachellia tortilis seed extracts exhibited noteworthy anti‐inflammatory response in mice with comparable activity (reaction time of 6.55 sec) in the group treated with diclofenac sodium (reaction time of 6.58 sec) and morphine sulfate (reaction time of 12.33 sec) [ref. 117]. The chemical profile of Vachellia tortilis revealed interesting phytochemicals such as myricetin rutinoside and luteolin glucoside which may be responsible for providing pain relief [ref. 119, ref. 120, ref. 121]. This supports the efficacy of V. tortilis for its traditional use of treating diarrhoea [ref. 91]. Decoction of Acokanthera oppositifolia leaves is used to expel parasites [ref. 53]. The extracts have excellent COX‐1 inhibition and COX‐2 inhibition activity, indicating good anti‐inflammatory activity with good in vitro nematocidal activity [ref. 122]. The anti‐inflammatory activity may be related to the presence of compounds which give the plant good antioxidant efficacy [ref. 123, ref. 124]. Vachellia karoo extracts had good anti‐inflammatory activity in mice which lasted up to 2 days after the treatment application. The 100 mg/kg dose produced 1.81 % inhibition, and the 200 mg/kg dose had 1.07% inhibition of inflammation, which is comparable to the inhibition of the positive control agent (1.38 %) used, indomethacin at 10 mg/kg [ref. 123]. The results support the use of V. karroo to treat fractures and skin diseases [ref. 64, ref. 76]

Antioxidant Activity

Plants with antioxidant activity are potential candidates for preventing certain inflammatory diseases [ref. 124]. Evidence of the antioxidant effect of the ethnoveterinary plants used by the Batswana have been assessed (Table 7). For instance, A. oppositifolia, which contains flavonoids, proanthocyanidins and quercetin equivalents did not exhibit in vitro NO‐ radical inhibition, but was active against ABTS free radicals, DPPH free radicals, hydroxyl free radical, superoxide anion scavenging activity and iron reducing activity [ref. 17, ref. 125, ref. 126].

In terms of the ethnoveterinary records, snake bites are one of the most common conditions treated by plants among the Batswana of southern Africa (Table 2). As the toxicity effect of snake venom is associated with inducing oxidative stress and inflammatory response [ref. 127, ref. 128], establishing the efficacy of medicinal plants used to treat snake bites becomes important. Some plants assessed for antioxidant activity are used to treat snake bite, with varying antioxidant activity reported. Aloe ferox extract exhibited notable DPPH (60%) and ABTS (80%) scavenging activity at the highest tested concentration of 0.4 mg/mL [ref. 129]. The DPPH scavenging activity of Diospyros lycioides was assessed using TLC and there were several bands in chromatograms eluted using three different systems indicating the presence of polar, non‐polar and neutral polarity with some antioxidant activity [ref. 130]. Moringa oleifera is reportedly used for cough and other unspecified conditions [ref. 63, ref. 131]. The extracts of M. oleifera had noteworthy in vitro DPPH, OH and NADH scavenging activity as well as in vivo ferrous ion chelating activity [ref. 132].

Toxicity and Safety of Medicinal Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records

Toxicity bioassays are necessary to determine the safety of herbal remedies in animals and humans [ref. 88]. The selectivity index (cytotoxicity) of plant extracts is important pecially in targeting specific cancer cell lines [ref. 133]. Cytotoxicity studies need to be conducted in parallel with the biological assays to confirm the efficacy for the plants or its general toxicity [ref. 134]. Some of the plants with ethnoveterinary records among the Batswana in southern Africa have been assessed for their safety with diverse responses (Table 8). As with other biological assays, in vitro cytotoxicity results will not always have the same results as acute toxicity tests. For instance, Senna tora leaves (ethyl acetate extracts) were reported to have moderate cytotoxicity (LC₅₀ = 35.246 µg/mL) when using the brine shrimp assay, while no acute oral toxicity (LD₅₀ = 4263.906 mg/kg b.w.) was observed in an in vivo assay using mammalian subjects [ref. 135].

Biomarkers such as glucose, urea, creatinine and alkaline phosphates are used to determine in vivo toxicity. These biomarkers usually indicate the degradation of vital organs. The impact on renal function, which is assessed by evaluating serum ureal and creatine concentrations in mice models is another indicator of the toxicity of Senna italica extracts [ref. 136]. In vivo assays account for 35% of the toxicity and safety assays reported (Figure 6). Some parameters used to determine acute oral toxicity are signs of hepatic damage [ref. 137], sedative or paralytic effect [ref. 138], loss of body weight [ref. 139], and mortality [ref. 94, ref. 113, ref. 140] reported on the subacute toxicity effect after topical application of plant extract. Mice treated with Nicotiana tabacum extract in a trial for activity against ticks (Rhipicephalus microplus) exhibited no signs of toxicity (i.e., skin reaction, intestinal distress, mortality) after 3 weeks [ref. 140]. The results indicate the efficacy and safety of N. tabacum for external parasites, leaving opportunity for investigating the efficacy and safety in terms of its traditional use in treating internal parasites [ref. 63, ref. 109, ref. 131]. The in vivo toxicity study revealing the safety of topically applied Terminalia sericea was part of a study investigating in vivo anti‐inflammatory activity [ref. 94]. This further supports the topical application of T. sericea (Table 2).

Profiling, Quantification and Identified Phytochemicals of Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records Among the Batswana of Southern Africa

Secondary metabolite production in plants is regulated by a range of factors, including biotic and abiotic stresses, physiological and developmental processes, chemical and mechanical elicitors, and cultivation and post‐harvest conditions. Despite the diversity of factors influencing their synthesis, plant secondary metabolism is predominantly directed towards the production of phenolics (≈45%), followed by terpenoids and steroids (≈27%), alkaloids (≈18%), and other compound classes (≈10%) [ref. 141]. From the current findings, a significant portion (51.72%) of the 116 plants with ethnoveterinary records have been profiled to establish their phytochemicals (Table 9). Phytochemical profiles varied among the identified species, with phenolics constituting the most abundant group, while terpenoids, steroids, and alkaloids were also present across the plant species. Generally, phytochemical analysis methods employed are chosen based on type of compounds sought, metabolites of interest, or the cost of analysis [ref. 142, ref. 143]. Chromatography methods are the most reported techniques used for phytochemical analysis (Figure 8). Earlier studies on phytochemical profiling primarily employed qualitative methods, such as colorimetric assays, which confirms the presence of phytochemical groups through precipitation, formation of foam or colour change in solution [ref. 144]. This method is usually applied at preliminary screening stages, as it provides a simple, quick and cost effective way of detecting phytochemicals without the need for sophisticated instrumentation [ref. 145].

Gas chromatography is a relatively low cost method for identifying volatile organic compounds [ref. 146] and is the most commonly cited chromatography method due to volatility of phytochemicals such as terpenoids [ref. 147]. Ultraviolet light spectrophotometry is used to quantify phytochemicals that were detected using qualitative methods such as Sakowski test for steroids, Lieberman–Uchard’s test for triterpenes, Wanger’s test for alkaloid, ferric cyanide test for phenolic compounds and ferric chloride test for flavonoids [ref. 148].The phenolic compounds and flavonoids identified from Ximenia americana using the Folin–Ciocalteu and the Adom and Liu methods, respectively, have a wide range of biological activities [ref. 149]. Phenolic compound exhibit in vitro anthelmintic activity [ref. 150, ref. 151], which may contribute to the reported use to treat internal parasites (Table 2).

Chromatographic methods are used for separating, detection and quantification [ref. 152].Ultra‐performance liquid chromatography analysis of T. sericea extracts detected saponins which exhibited in vitro anti‐inflammatory activity on LPS treated RAW 264.7 cells [ref. 153]. The leaves, stem, roots and bark of T. sericea are used for several conditions including cough, internal parasites, diarrhoea and retained placenta (Table 2). The methanol extracts have in vitro anti‐microbial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus epidermis, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhirium, Pseudomonas aureginosa and Klebsiella pneumonia (average MIC ≥ 1.49 mg/mL), and the acetone and methanol extracts have in vivo wound healing activity observed, indicative of in vitro anti‐inflammatory activity (2 g/10 g dose) [ref. 97].

Spectrophotometric methods detect phytochemicals by detecting the functional groups present in a compound or the presence of conjugation within a compound [ref. 152]. The ─OH functional groups containing compounds identified from Cassia abbreviata, was identified as a flavan which was named 2,3‐dihydro‐5‐hydroxy‐8‐methoxy‐2‐(‐4‐methoxyphenyl)chromen‐4‐one [ref. 154]. The compound did not exhibit greater antiplasmodial activity (IC₅₀ = 26.02 µg/mL) than the crude extract (IC₅₀ = 13.31 µg/mL), or positive controls used, Chloroquine (IC₅₀ = 0.026 µg/mL), mefloquine (IC₅₀ = 0.03 µg/mL) and quinine (IC₅₀ = 0.09 µg/mL) [ref. 154]. Despite the unspecified ethnoveterinary use of C. abbreviata (Table 2), flavans and other flavonoids exerted antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory and antimicrobial activities which contribute to treating several conditions [ref. 155, ref. 156].

The phytochemicals have a wide range of therapeutic properties, and the presence and concentration of specific phytochemicals can predict the bioactivity. The antioxidant activity of Ximenia afra leaf extracts can be attributed to the presence of procyanidins, and quercetin, compounds found to contribute to antioxidant activity [ref. 157]. The phytochemicals associated with antimicrobial activities are terpenoids and phenolic compounds with hydroxyl groups which interrupt the bacterial cell membrane permeability [ref. 99]. Therefore the presence of phenolic compounds and terpenoids (alkaloids, fatty acids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolics, phytosterols, saponins, and tannins) in the aqueous bark extract of Ximenia americana [ref. 100] is consistent with the good antimicrobial activity reported [ref. 158].

The extensive chemical profiling for A. tortilis [ref. 121] revealed the presence of phytochemicals such as myricetin rutinoside and luteolin glucoside which may provide pain relief [ref. 119, ref. 120, ref. 121]. Fatty acid and fatty acid esters are believed to contribute to nematocidal activity of plant extracts [ref. 111]. Tannins and phenolic compounds are usually produced by plants for defense in response to biological attack [ref. 112, ref. 113]. This is evident in Nicotiana tabacum which has a high phenolic compound content [ref. 159] and has shown good antiparasitic activity. Qualitative analysis of Opuntia ficus‐indica extract, which has proven in vivo anthelmintic activity [ref. 160], has revealed the presence of polyphenols and phenolic compounds [ref. 161].

Clinical Trials of Plants With Ethnoveterinary Records

Clinical trials are required to determine long term toxicity, side effects and drug interactions and possible secondary benefits of phytotherapies [ref. 162, ref. 163, ref. 164]. A significant challenge in veterinary clinical trials is overcoming bias [ref. 165], which is compounded by the existing obstacles associated with clinical trials for phytotherapies. The complex nature of medicinal plants used in phytotherapies can cause inconsistencies and variations in phytochemical concentrations [ref. 166], therefore standardisation of protocols can be difficult [ref. 167]. The placebos used in phytotherapy clinical trials often pose an additional challenge as they fail to have the same colour, texture and smell, effectively not being an analogous compound. This brings to question the validity of the trial as a double‐blind study [ref. 168]. These challenges and more can limit the credibility of trial results, creating obstacles in regulating the industry [ref. 169]. Despite this, the clinical trial registry continues to be updated with new medicinal plant remedies in veterinary medicine (https://veterinaryclinicaltrials.org/studies/?term~recruiting_status = R, access 20/11/2024). A randomised, placebo‐controlled double‐blind clinical trial conducted on Cannabis sativa oil was reported to be beneficial in managing chronic pain by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress in canines [ref. 170]. There have been no reports to date of veterinary clinical trials for medicinal plants used by the Batswana people.

Conclusions

This review underscores the critical importance of traditional livestock husbandry practices among Batswana communities in southern Africa, where plant‐based remedies serve as essential tools for managing livestock health. The appraisal on ethnoveterinary knowledge uncovers the diversity of plants that the Batswana people use to treat a range of conditions such as parasitic infestations, wounds, infectious diseases and complications from animal bites. In the context of limited access to conventional veterinary care, these culturally rooted practices demonstrate the ingenuity and adaptability of indigenous knowledge systems in addressing diverse livestock health challenges. The continued reliance on these practices highlights their relevance not only as a means of sustaining livestock productivity but as a reflection of the deep connection between cultural heritage and indigenous medicinal plants. A comprehensive inventory of 116 plant species from 44 families was recorded, showcasing the remarkable biodiversity leveraged in treating nine major categories of livestock health conditions. Commonly used plant parts, such as roots and leaves, were prepared through methods such as decoctions and infusions, with oral and topical routes of administration being predominant. The presence of phytochemicals and the biological activities of the plants support the therapeutic potential of the plants. This provides empirical evidence to support ethnoveterinary knowledge. However, the presence of phytochemicals cannot be used as a sole determinant or factor for biological activity validation as other factors such as bioavailability can influence the efficacy and potency of plant extracts in vivo. Complementary in vivo studies and clinical trials can provide essential information on safety, pharmacological effect, and the correct dosage of ethnoveterinary medications, supporting the adoption of herbal remedies and their integration into modern veterinary health practices. Overall, the ethnoveterinary practices of the Batswana are of great benefit to underserved communities. The incorporation of plant‐based ethnoveterinary remedies into primary animal healthcare may be advantageous for rural communities given their dependence on livestock for survival.

Author Contributions

AOA and NAM conceptualised the study and edited the manuscript, TGM, NS and MVC sourced for the literature, conducted formal analysis and involved in the initial draft. JAA, SOA and LJM provided critical insight, edited the manuscript, and are involved in the supervision of the project. NAM, SOA and AOA secured the fundings for the project. All authors have read and agreed to the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work is based on the research supported by the South African National Department of Agriculture (DoA). A.O.A. received funding from the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science, Technology and Innovation (DSTI)‐National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa (Grant No: RCHDI2411105279212). The financial support provided by the Higher Degree Committee of the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences (FNAS), North‐West University to TGM is sincerely appreciated. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed are those of the authors alone; DoA and NRF accept no liability whatsoever in this regard.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was approved with reference number NWU‐01409‐23‐A9 by the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences Research Ethics Committee (FNASREC), North‐West University, South Africa.

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